📚 A-Level CIE Physics: Final Exam Revision Checklist | A-Level CIE 物理：期末复习提纲
This revision checklist covers all the major topics from the CIE A-Level Physics (9702) syllabus. Use it to structure your final review, identify weak areas, and practise applying key formulas and concepts. Each section highlights the most important ideas and typical exam requirements.
这份复习提纲涵盖了CIE A-Level物理(9702)课程的所有主要话题。用它来规划你的期末复习，找出薄弱环节，并练习应用关键公式和概念。每个小节都强调了最重要的知识点和典型的考试要求。
1. Physical Quantities and Measurements | 物理量与测量
You must be confident with SI base units and converting derived units. Learn the prefixes from pico (p, 10⁻¹²) to tera (T, 10¹²). Always express measurements with appropriate significant figures and include an absolute or percentage uncertainty.
你必须熟练掌握国际单位制基本单位以及导出单位的转换。记住从皮(p, 10⁻¹²)到太(T, 10¹²)的所有词头。测量的记录要使用合适有效数字，并总要包含绝对或百分比不确定度。
Understand the difference between random and systematic errors. Random errors can be reduced by averaging many readings; systematic errors affect accuracy and cannot be reduced by repetition.
理解随机误差和系统误差的区别。随机误差可通过多次读数求平均来减小；系统误差影响准确度，且无法通过重复测量来减小。
Know how to combine uncertainties: for addition/subtraction, add absolute uncertainties; for multiplication/division, add percentage uncertainties. For a power, multiply the percentage uncertainty by the power.
掌握不确定度的合成：加减运算时，绝对不确定度相加；乘除运算时，百分比不确定度相加；对于幂次，百分比不确定度要乘以幂指数。
c = fλ, T = 1/f, V = IR, ρ = m/V
Key relationships like the wave equation, frequency-period relation, Ohm’s law and density must be used fluently with units and can be treated as defining equations.
像波动方程、频率周期关系、欧姆定律和密度这些关键关系必须能熟练运用，并要结合单位；它们也能被当作定义方程来处理。
2. Kinematics | 运动学
Memorise the four equations of uniformly accelerated motion. Know when to use each one depending on the given variables and what you need to find. Always define the positive direction clearly.
记住四个匀加速运动方程。根据已知量和待求量，知道该选用哪一个方程。始终要清楚地规定正方向。
v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², v² = u² + 2as, s = ½(u + v)t
The gradient of a displacement–time graph gives velocity; the gradient of a velocity–time graph gives acceleration; the area under a velocity–time graph gives displacement. Practise sketching and interpreting these graphs for objects thrown upwards, falling freely, or bouncing.
位移-时间图像的斜率表示速度；速度-时间图像的斜率表示加速度；速度-时间图像下的面积表示位移。针对上抛、自由下落或弹跳的物体，练习画出和解释这些图像。
Projectile motion can be analysed by separating horizontal and vertical components. The horizontal velocity is constant (ignoring air resistance); the vertical motion experiences acceleration due to gravity g = 9.81 m s⁻².
抛体运动可以分解为水平和竖直两个分量进行分析。水平速度恒定（忽略空气阻力）；竖直方向有重力加速度 g = 9.81 m s⁻²。
3. Dynamics and Forces | 动力学与力
Newton’s three laws are the foundation: inertia (1st), F = ma (2nd), and action-reaction pairs (3rd). Always identify the forces acting on a body, draw a free-body diagram, and resolve forces into components where necessary.
牛顿三定律是基础：惯性（第一定律）、F = ma（第二定律）以及作用与反作用（第三定律）。总是要指出作用在物体上的力，画出受力示意图，并在必要时对力进行分解。
Momentum is a vector quantity given by p = mv. The principle of conservation of linear momentum applies to all isolated systems. Collision problems can be elastic (kinetic energy conserved) or inelastic (kinetic energy not conserved).
动量是矢量，表示为 p = mv。动量守恒原理适用于所有孤立系统。碰撞问题可以是弹性碰撞（动能守恒）或非弹性碰撞（动能不守恒）。
For equilibrium, both the resultant force and the resultant moment must be zero. Use the principle of moments: sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments about any pivot.
要满足平衡条件，合力与合力矩都必须为零。运用力矩原理：对于任意支点，顺时针力矩之和等于逆时针力矩之和。
Pressure in a fluid at rest is given by p = ρgh. The upthrust on an object immersed in a fluid equals the weight of the displaced fluid (Archimedes’ principle).
静止流体中的压强由 p = ρgh 给出。浸在流体中的物体受到的浮力等于排开流体的重量（阿基米德原理）。
4. Work, Energy and Power | 功、能与功率
Work done by a constant force is W = Fd cos θ, where θ is the angle between the force and displacement. Energy can be transferred as kinetic energy (½mv²), gravitational potential energy (mgΔh), or elastic potential energy.
恒力所做的功为 W = Fd cos θ，θ 是力与位移间的夹角。能量可以表现为动能(½mv²)、重力势能(mgΔh)或弹性势能。
Power is the rate of doing work: P = W/t = Fv for constant velocity. The efficiency of a system is useful output energy divided by total input energy, often expressed as a percentage.
功率是做功的快慢：P = W/t；恒定速度下有 P = Fv。系统的效率等于有用输出能量除以总输入能量，常用百分比表示。
Use the work–energy principle: net work done on an object equals its change in kinetic energy. This is particularly helpful for problems involving changing forces or motion on slopes.
运用功能原理：物体所受合外力做的功等于其动能的变化量。对于涉及变力或斜面运动的问题，这个原理特别有用。
5. Deformation of Solids | 固体的形变
Distinguish between elastic deformation (returns to original shape) and plastic deformation (permanent change). Hooke’s law states that extension is proportional to applied load up to the limit of proportionality: F = kx.
区分弹性形变（恢复原状）和塑性形变（永久改变）。胡克定律指出，在比例极限内，伸长量与施加的载荷成正比：F = kx。
Stress is force per unit area (σ = F/A), strain is extension per unit length (ε = ΔL/L). The Young modulus E = σ/ε is a property of the material and applies only within the linear elastic region.
应力是单位面积上的力 (σ = F/A)，应变是单位长度的伸长量 (ε = ΔL/L)。杨氏模量 E = σ/ε 是材料的一种属性，仅在线弹性区域内适用。
From a force–extension graph, identify the elastic limit, yield point and ultimate tensile strength. The area under the curve up to elastic limit represents elastic strain energy per unit volume (for a unit volume test piece).
在力-伸长量图像上，识别弹性极限、屈服点和极限抗拉强度。弹性极限内曲线下的面积表示弹性应变能密度（对于单位体积试样）。
6. Waves: Basic Properties | 波的基本性质
Transverse waves have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer (e.g. light, water waves); longitudinal waves have oscillations parallel to the direction (e.g. sound). Only transverse waves can be polarised.
横波的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直（如光、水波）；纵波的振动方向则与传播方向平行（如声波）。只有横波才能被偏振。
Describe the electromagnetic spectrum in order of increasing frequency: radio, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays. All travel at c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ in vacuum.
按频率递增顺序描述电磁波谱：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X射线、伽马射线。所有电磁波在真空中都以 c = 3.00 × 10⁸ m s⁻¹ 传播。
Intensity is power per unit area and for a spherical wave decreases according to I ∝ 1/r². For a travelling wave, intensity is proportional to the square of the amplitude.
强度是单位面积的功率，对于球面波，强度按 I ∝ 1/r² 衰减。对于行波，强度与振幅的平方成正比。
7. Superposition of Waves | 波的叠加
The superposition principle states that when two or more waves meet, the resultant displacement is the vector sum of the individual displacements. Two-source interference requires coherent sources of similar amplitude and frequency.
叠加原理指出，两列或更多列波相遇时，合位移是各列波位移的矢量和。双源干涉需要振幅相近、频率相同的相干波源。
For constructive interference, path difference = nλ; for destructive interference, path difference = (n + ½)λ. Young’s double-slit fringe spacing is given by Δx = λD/d, where D is slit-to-screen distance and d is slit separation.
相长干涉时波程差为 nλ；相消干涉时波程差为 (n + ½)λ。杨氏双缝的条纹间距由 Δx = λD/d 给出，D 是双缝到屏的距离，d 是缝间距。
Stationary waves form when two identical waves travel in opposite directions along the same line. Nodes are points of zero displacement, antinodes are points of maximum amplitude. Both ends fixed or one end free give different harmonic patterns.
驻波由两列相同波沿同一直线反方向传播而形成。波节是位移始终为零的点，波腹是位移振幅最大的点。两端固定或一端固定的边界条件会给出不同的谐波模式。
For a string fixed at both ends, the nth harmonic has frequency fn = nv/(2L). In air columns, open-ended pipes have all harmonics, closed-at-one-end pipes have only odd harmonics.
对于两端固定的弦，第 n 次谐波的频率是 fn = nv/(2L)。在空气柱中，开管包含所有谐波，闭管则只有奇数次谐波。
8. Electricity and DC Circuits | 电学与直流电路
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge: I = Q/t. Potential difference is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = W/Q. Resistance is defined by R = V/I; for ohmic conductors, the I–V graph is a straight line through origin.
电流是电荷流动的速率：I = Q/t。电势差是单位电荷转移的能量：V = W/Q。电阻定义为 R = V/I；对于欧姆导体，电流-电压图像是一条过原点的直线。
Resistivity ρ of a material is linked to resistance by R = ρL/A. Know how resistance changes with temperature for metals (increases) and thermistors (decreases).
材料的电阻率 ρ 与电阻的关系为 R = ρL/A。理解金属（电阻随温度升高而增大）和热敏电阻（电阻随温度升高而减小）的特性。
Apply Kirchhoff’s laws: the sum of currents entering a junction equals the sum leaving; the sum of e.m.f.s around a closed loop equals the sum of p.d.s. Use these to analyse series and parallel circuits. Internal resistance r of a cell leads to terminal p.d. V = E − Ir.
运用基尔霍夫定律：流入节点的电流总和等于流出节点的电流总和；沿闭合回路的电动势总和等于各段电压降的总和。用这些定律分析串联和并联电路。电池的内阻 r 导致路端电压 V = E − Ir。
P = IV = I²R = V²/R
Power in electrical terms can be expressed via these forms; always use the appropriate one for the given energy dissipation.
电功率可以用这些形式表达；对于给定的能量消耗，要选用合适的形式。
9. Particle Physics | 粒子物理
Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. Isotopes have the same proton number Z but different neutron numbers N. The strong nuclear force holds the nucleus together against electrostatic repulsion.
原子由包含质子和中子的原子核以及绕核运动的电子构成。同位素具有相同的质子数 Z 但中子数 N 不同。强核力克服静电斥力将原子核束缚在一起。
Fundamental particles include quarks and leptons. The proton is uud, the neutron is udd. In beta-minus decay, a down quark changes to an up quark, emitting an electron and an electron antineutrino: d → u + e⁻ + ν̅ₑ.
基本粒子包括夸克和轻子。质子由 uud 构成，中子由 udd 构成。在 β⁻ 衰变中，一个下夸克变成一个上夸克，并发射出一个电子和一个反电子中微子：d → u + e⁻ + ν̅ₑ。
Conservation laws are essential: baryon number, lepton number and charge must be conserved in all reactions. Strange particles are produced via the strong interaction but decay via the weak interaction.
守恒定律至关重要：所有反应中，重子数、轻子数和电荷都必须守恒。奇异粒子通过强相互作用产生，却通过弱相互作用衰变。
10. Circular Motion and Gravitational Fields | 圆周运动与引力场
An object moving in a circle at constant speed has an acceleration towards the centre: centripetal acceleration a = v²/r = ω²r. The net force must provide the centripetal force F = mv²/r = mω²r.
做匀速圆周运动的物体具有指向圆心的加速度：向心加速度 a = v²/r = ω²r。合力必须提供向心力 F = mv²/r = mω²r。
Newton’s law of gravitation: F = −GMm/r². The gravitational field strength g = GM/r² at a distance r from a point mass or outside a uniform sphere. For a satellite in orbit, equate gravitational force to centripetal force to derive Kepler’s third law.
牛顿万有引力定律：F = −GMm/r²。距离点质量或均匀球体外部 r 处的引力场强度为 g = GM/r²。对于在轨卫星，令万有引力等于向心力，可推导出开普勒第三定律。
Gravitational potential is the work done per unit mass bringing a test mass from infinity to a point: Vgrav = −GM/r. Escape velocity vesc = √(2GM/R).
引力势是将单位质量的检验物体从
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