📚 IGCSE AQA Physics: End-of-Term Revision Guide | IGCSE AQA 物理：期末复习提纲
This revision guide covers the core topics of the IGCSE AQA Physics specification, helping you consolidate key concepts, practise calculations, and avoid common pitfalls. Use it alongside past papers and your class notes for effective end-of-term preparation.
本复习提纲涵盖 IGCSE AQA 物理课程的核心主题，帮助你巩固关键概念、练习计算并避开常见错误。配合历年试卷和课堂笔记使用，效果更佳，是高效的期末备考资源。
1. Energy Stores and Transfers | 能量储存与转换
Energy exists in various stores: kinetic, gravitational potential, chemical, elastic (strain), nuclear, thermal (internal) and electrostatic. In any process, energy is transferred between these stores or moved by forces and heating, but the total energy is always conserved.
能量储存于多种形式：动能、重力势能、化学能、弹性势能（应变能）、核能、热能（内能）和静电势能。在任何过程中，能量通过这些储存间的转移或因力做功和加热而移动，但总能量始终守恒。
Work done (W) equals the energy transferred. W = F × d, where force is in newtons (N), distance in metres (m), and work in joules (J). Power (P) is the rate of energy transfer: P = E ÷ t, measured in watts (W).
做功 (W) 等于转移的能量。W = F × d，力的单位是牛顿 (N)，距离单位是米 (m)，功的单位是焦耳 (J)。功率 (P) 是能量转移的速率：P = E ÷ t，单位是瓦特 (W)。
Efficiency is the fraction of energy usefully transferred: efficiency = (useful output energy ÷ total input energy) × 100%. Sankey diagrams show energy flows and wasted energy, which is usually dissipated as heat.
效率是有效利用的能量占比：效率 = (有用的输出能量 ÷ 总输入能量) × 100%。桑基图展示能量流向和浪费的能量，这些能量通常以热的形式耗散。
Heat moves by conduction (vibrations in solids, especially metals with free electrons), convection (in fluids due to density changes) and radiation (infrared waves that can travel through a vacuum). Good insulators reduce these transfers.
热传递有三种方式：传导（固体中的振动，特别是拥有自由电子的金属）、对流（流体中因密度变化引起的环流）和辐射（可以在真空中传播的红外波）。良好的绝热材料能减少这些传递。
2. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Vectors like force, velocity and displacement have both magnitude and direction; scalars like speed, distance and mass have only magnitude. Resultant force is the single force that has the same effect as all forces acting on an object.
力、速度和位移等是矢量，既有大小又有方向；速率、路程和质量是标量，只有大小。合力是产生与所有作用力相同效果的单个力。
An object at rest or moving at constant velocity has zero resultant force (Newton’s First Law). F = ma (Newton’s Second Law): resultant force = mass × acceleration. One newton is the force needed to give a 1 kg mass an acceleration of 1 m/s².
静止或匀速直线运动的物体所受合力为零（牛顿第一定律）。F = ma（牛顿第二定律）：合力 = 质量 × 加速度。1 牛顿是使 1 千克物体产生 1 m/s² 加速度所需的力。
Motion can be described using graphs: on a distance-time graph, the gradient is speed; on a velocity-time graph, the gradient is acceleration and the area under the graph is displacement. Acceleration = (v − u) ÷ t.
运动可用图像描述：距离-时间图中，斜率表示速率；速度-时间图中，斜率表示加速度，图像下的面积表示位移。加速度 = (v − u) ÷ t。
Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance. Factors include speed, reaction time, alcohol, tire condition, and road surface. Momentum = mass × velocity (p = mv) and is conserved in collisions when no external forces act.
停车距离 = 反应距离 + 刹车距离。影响因素包括车速、反应时间、酒精、轮胎状况和路面。动量 = 质量 × 速度 (p = mv)，在无外力作用的碰撞中动量守恒。
3. Waves in Action | 波的基本原理与应用
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. In transverse waves (e.g. light, water ripples), oscillations are perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer; in longitudinal waves (e.g. sound), oscillations are parallel.
波传递能量而不传递物质。横波（如光波、水波）的振动方向与能量传递方向垂直；纵波（如声波）的振动方向与能量传递方向平行。
Key terms: amplitude (maximum displacement from rest position), wavelength (λ, distance between two corresponding points on consecutive waves), frequency (f, number of waves per second, in hertz), period (T = 1/f). Wave speed v = fλ.
关键术语：振幅（偏离平衡位置的最大位移）、波长（λ，相邻波上两个对应点间的距离）、频率（f，每秒波的数量，单位赫兹）、周期（T = 1/f）。波速 v = fλ。
Reflection obeys the law: angle of incidence = angle of reflection. Refraction occurs when waves change speed at a boundary; if they slow down, they bend towards the normal. Sound waves require a medium and travel faster in solids than in gases.
反射遵守定律：入射角 = 反射角。折射发生在波跨越边界速度改变时；若波速变慢，波向法线方向偏折。声波需要介质，在固体中的速度大于在气体中。
The electromagnetic spectrum, from longest to shortest wavelength: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X-ray, gamma. All travel at 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s in a vacuum. Uses include communications, cooking, thermal imaging, and medical imaging.
电磁波谱按波长从长到短排列：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线、伽马射线。所有电磁波在真空中速度为 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s。应用包括通讯、烹煮、热成像和医学影像。
4. Electricity and Circuits | 电学与电路
Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge: I = Q ÷ t. Charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C), current in amperes (A). In metals, current is carried by delocalised electrons; in electrolytes, by ions.
电流 (I) 是电荷流动的速率：I = Q ÷ t。电荷 (Q) 的单位是库仑 (C)，电流单位是安培 (A)。在金属中，电流由自由电子携带；在电解液中，由离子携带。
Voltage (potential difference, V) is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = E ÷ Q. Resistance (R) = V ÷ I, measured in ohms (Ω). Ohm’s Law states that current is proportional to voltage for a fixed resistor at constant temperature.
电压（电势差 V）是每单位电荷转移的能量：V = E ÷ Q。电阻 (R) = V ÷ I，单位为欧姆 (Ω)。欧姆定律指出，温度恒定时固定电阻的电流与电压成正比。
In series circuits, current is the same everywhere; total resistance is the sum R_total = R₁ + R₂ + …; voltages add to the source voltage. In parallel, the voltage across each branch is the same; total current splits, and total resistance decreases as more paths are added.
串联电路中电流处处相等；总电阻为各部分之和 R_total = R₁ + R₂ + …；各电压之和等于电源电压。并联电路中各支路电压相同；总电流分流，通路易多总电阻越小。
Electrical power P = I × V = I²R = V²/R. Energy transferred E = P × t (in joules) or kilowatt-hours (kWh) for domestic bills. Fuses and circuit breakers protect appliances; the earth wire provides a safe path for fault currents.
电功率 P = I × V = I²R = V²/R。转移能量 E = P × t（单位焦耳），或使用千瓦时 (kWh) 计算电费。保险丝和断路器保护用电器；地线为故障电流提供安全通路。
5. Particle Model of Matter | 物质粒子模型
Solids have a fixed shape, particles vibrate in fixed positions; liquids take the shape of their container, particles slide past each other; gases expand to fill the container, particles move rapidly and are widely spaced. The changes of state are melting, freezing, boiling, condensing, and sublimation.
固体有固定形状，粒子在固定位置振动；液体可随容器变形，粒子可相互滑动；气体充满整个容器，粒子快速运动且间距很大。物态变化包括熔化、凝固、沸腾、凝结和升华。
Density ρ = m ÷ V, where m is mass in kg, V is volume in m³, and density in kg/m³. Internal energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of particles. Heating increases internal energy but temperature only rises when kinetic energy increases; during a change of state, potential energy changes while temperature stays constant.
密度 ρ = m ÷ V，质量 m 单位 kg，体积 V 单位 m³，密度单位 kg/m³。内能是粒子动能与势能的总和。加热使内能增加，但只在动能增加时温度才升高；在状态变化时，势能改变而温度保持不变。
Specific latent heat L = E ÷ m. Latent heat of fusion is for melting/freezing; latent heat of vaporisation is for boiling/condensing. The pressure of a gas in a sealed container increases with temperature (Kelvin scale) because particles hit the walls harder and more often.
比潜热 L = E ÷ m。熔化潜热对应熔化/凝固；汽化潜热对应沸腾/凝结。密封容器中气体压力随温度升高而增大（使用开尔文温标），因为粒子撞击器壁更剧烈、更频繁。
6. Atomic Structure and Radioactivity | 原子结构与放射性
Atoms consist of a nucleus containing protons (positive) and neutrons (neutral), with electrons (negative) arranged in energy levels. Atomic number Z is the number of protons; mass number A = protons + neutrons.
原子由包含质子（带正电）和中子（不带电）的原子核，以及按能级排布的电子（带负电）构成。原子序数 Z 是质子数；质量数 A = 质子数 + 中子数。
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Some nuclei are unstable and emit radiation: alpha particles (α, helium nucleus, highly ionising, stopped by paper), beta particles (β, fast electron, medium ionising, stopped by aluminium), and gamma rays (γ, electromagnetic wave, low ionising, needs thick lead).
同位素是质子数相同但中子数不同的原子。某些原子核不稳定，会发出辐射：α 粒子（α，氦核，电离能力强，纸张即可阻挡）、β 粒子（β，快速电子，电离能力中等，铝板阻挡）和 γ 射线（γ，电磁波，电离能力弱，需厚铅板阻挡）。
Radioactive decay is random. Half-life is the time for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay, or for the count rate to halve. Uses include smoke alarms (alpha), thickness monitoring (beta), and cancer treatment/sterilisation (gamma).
放射性衰变是随机的。半衰期是指样本中一半放射性原子核发生衰变所需的时间，或计数率减半的时间。应用包括烟雾报警器（α）、厚度监测（β）以及癌症治疗/灭菌（γ）。
Nuclear fission splits a large nucleus (e.g. uranium-235) into smaller nuclei, releasing energy. Nuclear fusion joins light nuclei (e.g. hydrogen isotopes) to form helium, releasing even more energy; this powers the Sun.
核裂变是将大核（如铀-235）分裂成较小的核，释放能量。核聚变是将轻核（如氢同位素）结合形成氦，释放更多能量；这是太阳的能量来源。
7. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁学与电磁学
Magnets have north and south poles; like poles repel, opposite attract. A magnetic field is a region where magnetic materials experience a force. Field lines point from north to south, with strength shown by line density. The Earth has a magnetic field.
磁铁有北极和南极；同极相斥，异极相吸。磁场是磁性材料受到力的区域。磁感线从北极指向南极，其疏密程度表示磁场强度。地球自身拥有磁场。
An electromagnet is a coil of wire (solenoid) with a soft iron core; its magnetic field can be switched on and off and made much stronger by increasing current or adding more turns. Used in relays, loudspeakers, and lifting scrap.
电磁铁是绕有线圈（螺线管）并加软铁芯的装置；其磁场可通过通断电控制，且增大电流或增加匝数可使磁场显著增强。用于继电器、扬声器和吸吊废铁。
The motor effect: a current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force. Fleming’s left-hand rule predicts the direction: thumb = force, first finger = field (N to S), second finger = current (+ to −). The force F = BIL (for a wire perpendicular to the field).
电动机效应：磁场中的载流导线会受到力。弗莱明左手定则判断方向：拇指 = 力，食指 = 磁场（N 到 S），中指 = 电流（+ 到 −）。力的大小 F = BIL（导线垂直于磁场时）。
Electromagnetic induction: when a conductor cuts magnetic field lines (or the field around it changes), a voltage is induced. Generators use this to produce a.c.; transformers change voltage using a primary and secondary coil on a common iron core. Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ (ideal).
电磁感应：当导体切割磁感线（或周围磁场发生变化）时，会产生感应电压。发电机利用此原理产生交流电；变压器利用共同铁芯上的初级线圈和次级线圈改变电压，理想情况下 Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ。
8. Space Physics | 空间物理
Our Solar System consists of the Sun, eight planets (orbiting in ellipses), dwarf planets, moons, and asteroids. A planet’s orbital speed v = 2πr ÷ T, where r is orbital radius and T is the period. Gravity provides the centripetal force.
我们的太阳系包含太阳、八大行星（沿椭圆轨道运行）、矮行星、卫星和小行星。行星轨道速度 v = 2πr ÷ T，r 为轨道半径，T 为周期。引力提供向心力。
Stars form from clouds of gas and dust. A protostar becomes a main-sequence star when nuclear fusion begins. For a star like the Sun, later stages are red giant → planetary nebula → white dwarf. More massive stars can explode as supernovae, leaving neutron stars or black holes.
恒星起源于气体和尘埃云。当核聚变启动时，原恒星变为主序星。对于太阳这类恒星，后期演化是红巨星 → 行星状星云 → 白矮星。质量更大的恒星会以超新星爆发终结，留下中子星或黑洞。
The universe began with the Big Bang, supported by evidence including the red-shift of distant galaxies (moving away from us, with higher recessional speed at greater distance) and cosmic microwave background radiation. This suggests an expanding universe.
宇宙起源于大爆炸，证据包括遥远星系的红移（它们远离我们，且越远的星系退行速度越快）和宇宙微波背景辐射。这些表明宇宙正在膨胀。
9. Key Experimental Skills | 关键实验技能
Know how to plan an experiment: identify the independent, dependent, and control variables. Use appropriate instruments (e.g. ruler, stopclock, ammeter, voltmeter, thermometer, newton meter) and record data in clear tables with headings and units.
掌握实验设计：识别自变量、因变量和控制变量。选用合适仪器（如直尺、秒表、电流表、电压表、温度计、牛顿计），并将数据记录在标注有表头和单位的清晰表格中。
Graphs must have labelled axes with units, sensible scales, and a line of best fit (often a straight line through the origin if the relationship is directly proportional). Calculate the gradient and intercept where relevant. Significant figures in calculations should reflect the data.
绘图时坐标轴须标注名称和单位，刻度合理，画出最佳拟合线（若关系为正比，则为通过原点的直线）。根据情况计算斜率和截距。计算结果的有效数字应与测量数据匹配。
Common practicals: investigate motion using a ticker timer or light gates; measure the specific heat capacity of a metal block; determine the resistance of a wire; measure the speed of sound using echoes; and find the focal length of a converging lens.
常见实验：利用打点计时器或光闸研究运动；测量金属块的比热容；测定导线电阻；利用回声测声速；测定会聚透镜的焦距。
10. Exam Success Strategies | 应考策略与常见错误
Always read the question carefully and underline command words: ‘calculate’, ‘describe’, ‘explain’, ‘compare’. For ‘explain’ questions, state the physics principle and then link it to the situation. Check that your answer uses the correct units and unit conversions (e.g. cm² to m², minutes to seconds).
务必仔细读题并在指令词下划线：‘计算’、‘描述’、‘解释’、‘比较’。回答‘解释’类问题时，先说明物理原理，再将其与题目情境联系起来。确保答案使用正确的单位并完成单位换算（如 cm² 转 m²，分钟转秒）。
Don’t confuse mass and weight: weight = mass × gravitational field strength (W = mg, g ≈ 10 N/kg on Earth). Energy calculations often need efficiency steps; remember to express as a percentage. In momentum questions, assign a positive direction and use conservation.
不要混淆质量和重量：重量 = 质量 × 引力场强度 (W = mg，地球上 g ≈ 10 N/kg)。能量计算常涉及效率，记得用百分比表示。动量问题中，规定正方向并用守恒分析。
When drawing circuits, use correct circuit symbols and avoid gaps. In ray diagrams, use a ruler, show arrows on rays, and remember that light changes direction at the normal unless it enters along the normal. Double-check graph scales and label the line to show what it represents.
画电路图时使用正确的电路符号，确保导线连接无断口。光路图中用直尺，给光线加上箭头，并记住光在法线处改变方向，除非沿法线入射。检查图像刻度，并标注曲线表示的内容。
Stay calm and manage your time: spend 2 minutes per mark on longer questions, keep moving through the paper. Use the formula sheet wisely; it reminds you of the equations, but you must know how to select and rearrange them.
保持冷静并合理分配时间：长问题可按每分分配约 2 分钟，尽量向前推进。善用公式纸，它帮你回忆方程，但你必须知道如何选择和变形它们。
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