📚 IGCSE AQA Biology: Final Revision Checklist | IGCSE AQA 生物：期末复习提纲
This comprehensive revision guide covers the core topics of the IGCSE AQA Biology specification. Use it to check your understanding, identify weak areas, and focus your final preparation. Each section pairs English explanations with Chinese translations to reinforce key concepts.
这份综合复习提纲涵盖了IGCSE AQA生物课程的核心主题。用它来检查你的理解、找出薄弱环节并集中进行最后冲刺。每个部分都以中英文对照呈现，帮助巩固关键概念。
1. Cell Biology | 细胞生物学
All living organisms are made of cells, which can be prokaryotic (no nucleus) or eukaryotic (with a nucleus). Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic, while bacteria are prokaryotic.
所有生物都由细胞组成，细胞可分为原核细胞（无细胞核）和真核细胞（有细胞核）。动物和植物细胞是真核细胞，而细菌是原核细胞。
Plant cells have a cell wall, permanent vacuole, and chloroplasts; animal cells do not. Both have a cell membrane, cytoplasm, and nucleus.
植物细胞有细胞壁、永久液泡和叶绿体，动物细胞则没有。两者都有细胞膜、细胞质和细胞核。
Specialised cells such as sperm cells, nerve cells, and root hair cells have adaptations for their functions: many mitochondria for energy, long extensions, or large surface area.
特化细胞如精细胞、神经细胞和根毛细胞具有适应其功能的特征：大量线粒体提供能量、长长的突起或较大的表面积。
Microscopy: magnification = size of image / actual size. Light microscopes used in school; electron microscopes offer much higher resolution.
显微镜使用：放大倍数 = 图像大小 ÷ 实际大小。学校使用光学显微镜；电子显微镜具有更高的分辨率。
Cell division by mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells for growth and repair. The cell cycle includes interphase, mitosis, and cytokinesis.
有丝分裂产生两个遗传上相同的子细胞，用于生长和修复。细胞周期包括间期、有丝分裂和胞质分裂。
2. Organisation | 组织
Cells are organised into tissues, organs, and organ systems. The digestive system breaks down large insoluble food molecules into small soluble ones that can be absorbed into the blood.
细胞构成组织、器官和器官系统。消化系统将大的不溶性食物分子分解为小的可溶性分子以便吸收进入血液。
Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up reactions. Amylase breaks down starch into maltose; protease breaks proteins into amino acids; lipase breaks lipids into fatty acids and glycerol.
酶是加速反应的生物催化剂。淀粉酶将淀粉分解为麦芽糖；蛋白酶将蛋白质分解为氨基酸；脂肪酶将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。
The heart is a double pump; the right side pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs, the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body. Arteries carry blood away, veins return it, capillaries allow exchange.
心脏是一个双泵；右侧将去氧血泵送至肺部，左侧将充氧血泵送至全身。动脉将血液带离心脏，静脉将血液送回，毛细血管进行物质交换。
Blood components: red blood cells (transport oxygen via haemoglobin), white blood cells (defence), platelets (clotting), plasma (transports carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones).
血液成分：红细胞（通过血红蛋白运输氧气）、白细胞（防御）、血小板（凝血）、血浆（运输二氧化碳、营养物质、激素）。
Plant transport: xylem carries water and minerals from roots; phloem transports sugars from leaves. Transpiration is the evaporation of water from leaves, pulling water up.
植物运输：木质部从根部输送水分和矿物质；韧皮部运输叶片产生的糖分。蒸腾作用是水分从叶片蒸发，从而拉动水分上升。
3. Infection and Response | 感染与免疫反应
Pathogens include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists. They can spread by direct contact, air, water, or vectors. Examples: measles (virus), Salmonella (bacteria), rose black spot (fungus), malaria (protist).
病原体包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。它们可通过直接接触、空气、水或媒介传播。例如：麻疹（病毒）、沙门氏菌（细菌）、黑斑病（真菌）、疟疾（原生生物）。
The body defends itself with physical barriers (skin, mucus), chemical defences (stomach acid, lysozyme in tears), and the immune system. White blood cells engulf pathogens, produce antibodies, and secrete antitoxins.
身体通过物理屏障（皮肤、粘液）、化学防御（胃酸、泪液中的溶菌酶）和免疫系统进行防御。白细胞吞噬病原体、产生抗体并分泌抗毒素。
Vaccination introduces a dead or weakened form of a pathogen to stimulate antibody production, creating memory cells. Herd immunity protects those not vaccinated.
疫苗接种引入灭活或减毒的病原体，刺激产生抗体并形成记忆细胞。群体免疫可保护未接种的人群。
Antibiotics kill bacteria but not viruses. Antibiotic resistance arises from mutations and natural selection, making some bacterial strains difficult to treat.
抗生素能杀死细菌，但对病毒无效。抗生素耐药性源于突变和自然选择，使得某些细菌菌株难以治疗。
Drug development involves preclinical testing (on cells, tissues, animals) and clinical trials (on healthy volunteers and patients). Double-blind trials and placebos are used for reliability.
药物开发包括临床前测试（在细胞、组织、动物身上）和临床试验（在健康志愿者和患者身上）。双盲试验和安慰剂用于保证可靠性。
4. Bioenergetics | 生物能量学
Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (light energy). The glucose is used for respiration, converted to starch for storage, or used to make cellulose, proteins, and lipids.
光合作用在叶绿体中进行：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气（需要光能）。葡萄糖用于呼吸作用、转化为淀粉储存，或用于合成纤维素、蛋白质和脂质。
Limiting factors: light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature. The inverse square law links light intensity to distance: light intensity ∝ 1/d².
限制因素：光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。光照强度与距离的平方成反比：光强度 ∝ 1/d²。
Aerobic respiration: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy). It occurs in mitochondria and releases a large amount of ATP.
有氧呼吸：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+能量）。它发生在线粒体中，释放大量ATP。
Anaerobic respiration in muscle cells: glucose → lactic acid (+ energy). In yeast: glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide (+ energy). Anaerobic produces far less ATP.
肌肉细胞的无氧呼吸：葡萄糖 → 乳酸（+能量）。酵母中：葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳（+能量）。无氧呼吸产生的ATP少得多。
Metabolism is the sum of all reactions in the body, including synthesis of new molecules and breakdown of others. The liver plays a central role in metabolic processes.
新陈代谢是体内所有反应的总和，包括新分子的合成和其他物质的分解。肝脏在代谢过程中起着核心作用。
5. Homeostasis and Response | 体内稳态与反应
Homeostasis maintains a stable internal environment: blood glucose, body temperature, and water balance. The nervous system uses electrical impulses through neurones; reflex arcs bypass the brain for fast responses.
体内稳态维持稳定的内环境：血糖浓度、体温和水分平衡。神经系统通过神经元的电脉冲进行调节；反射弧绕过大脑以实现快速反应。
Synapses are gaps between neurones; chemicals diffuse across them to transmit signals. The endocrine system uses hormones, which move in the blood and have slower but longer-lasting effects.
突触是神经元之间的间隙；化学物质通过扩散传递信号。内分泌系统使用激素，激素通过血液输送，作用较慢但更持久。
Blood glucose control: insulin (from pancreas) lowers blood glucose; glucagon raises it. Type 1 diabetes is due to no insulin production; Type 2 is linked to lifestyle and insulin resistance.
血糖控制：胰岛素（来自胰腺）降低血糖；胰高血糖素升高血糖。1型糖尿病是由于不产生胰岛素；2型糖尿病与生活方式和胰岛素抵抗有关。
The kidneys filter blood, reabsorb useful substances, and excrete urea and excess water as urine. ADH controls water reabsorption; kidney failure may be treated with dialysis or transplant.
肾脏过滤血液、重吸收有用的物质，并将尿素和多余水分以尿液形式排出。抗利尿激素控制水的重吸收；肾衰竭可以通过透析或肾移植治疗。
Body temperature is controlled by the thermoregulatory centre in the hypothalamus. Responses to cold include shivering, vasoconstriction; to heat: sweating, vasodilation.
体温由下丘脑的体温调节中枢控制。对寒冷的反应包括颤抖、血管收缩；对热的反应包括出汗、血管舒张。
Plant hormones like auxin control phototropism (growth towards light) and gravitropism. Commercial uses include weedkillers, rooting powders, and fruit ripening control.
植物激素如生长素控制向光性（向光生长）和向地性。商业用途包括除草剂、生根粉和水果催熟控制。
6. Inheritance and Variation | 遗传与变异
Sexual reproduction produces genetically varied offspring through meiosis, which halves the chromosome number to produce gametes. Asexual reproduction produces clones via mitosis.
有性生殖通过减数分裂产生遗传多样性的后代，减数分裂将染色体数目减半以形成配子。无性生殖通过有丝分裂产生克隆。
DNA is a double helix polymer made of nucleotide monomers (sugar, phosphate, base). The four bases pair specifically: A–T and C–G. Genes code for proteins, which determine traits.
DNA是一种双螺旋聚合物，由核苷酸单体（糖、磷酸基团、碱基）组成。四种碱基特异性配对：A–T 和 C–G。基因编码蛋白质，蛋白质决定性状。
Protein synthesis: transcription (DNA → mRNA) in nucleus; translation (mRNA → protein) on ribosomes. Mutations can change protein structure and may be harmful, neutral, or beneficial.
蛋白质合成：转录（DNA → mRNA）在细胞核内；翻译（mRNA → 蛋白质）在核糖体上。突变可能改变蛋白质结构，可能有害、中性或有益。
Monohybrid inheritance shows dominant and recessive alleles. Punnett squares predict ratios. Some disorders are inherited, e.g., cystic fibrosis (recessive), polydactyly (dominant).
单基因遗传显示出显性和隐性等位基因。庞纳特方格预测比例。一些疾病是遗传性的，例如囊性纤维化（隐性）和多指症（显性）。
Variation can be genetic or environmental. Evolution occurs by natural selection: individuals with advantageous traits are more likely to survive and reproduce, passing those alleles on.
变异可以是遗传的或环境的。进化通过自然选择发生：具有有利性状的个体更可能生存和繁殖，并将这些等位基因传递下去。
Selective breeding and genetic engineering are used to produce desired characteristics. GM crops may improve yield or nutritional value, but have ethical concerns.
选择育种和基因工程被用于产生所需的特征。转基因作物可能提高产量或营养价值，但也存在伦理问题。
7. Ecology | 生态学
Ecosystems consist of communities of organisms interacting with their abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) environments. Food chains show energy flow; energy is lost at each trophic level.
生态系统由生物群落及其与非生物（非生命）和生物（生命）环境的相互作用构成。食物链显示能量流动；能量在每个营养级都会损失。
Quadrats and transects are used to estimate population size and distribution. The carbon cycle and water cycle describe how materials are recycled in nature.
样方和样带用于估计种群大小和分布。碳循环和水循环描述了自然界中物质的循环方式。
Biodiversity is the variety of different species in an area. Deforestation, pollution, and global warming reduce biodiversity. Sustainable practices like conservation and reforestation help.
生物多样性是一个区域内不同物种的多样性。滥伐森林、污染和全球变暖会降低生物多样性。保护和再造林等可持续实践有助于缓解。
Biogas generators break down organic waste anaerobically to produce methane fuel. Overfishing reduces fish stocks; quotas and net size limits are used to manage fisheries.
沼气发生器在无氧条件下分解有机废物以产生甲烷燃料。过度捕捞会减少鱼类资源；通过配额和渔网尺寸限制来管理渔业。
Trophic levels: producers → primary consumers → secondary consumers → tertiary consumers. Pyramids of biomass show the mass of living material at each level; they are usually pyramid-shaped.
营养级：生产者 → 初级消费者 → 次级消费者 → 三级消费者。生物量金字塔显示了每个营养级的生物质量；它们通常呈金字塔形。
8. Key Practical Skills | 关键实验技能
Required practicals include using a microscope, testing for nutrients (iodine for starch, Benedict’s for reducing sugars, Biuret for protein, ethanol emulsion for lipids), and investigating enzyme activity (effect of temperature/pH on amylase).
必做实验包括使用显微镜、测试营养物质（碘液检测淀粉、本尼迪克特试剂检测还原糖、双缩脲试剂检测蛋白质、乙醇乳浊液检测脂质）以及研究酶活性（温度/pH对淀粉酶的影响）。
Photosynthesis practical: measure oxygen production of pondweed at different light intensities. Osmosis practical: measure mass change of potato cylinders in different sugar solutions.
光合作用实验：测量不同光照强度下水草产生的氧气量。渗透实验：测量不同糖溶液中马铃薯条的质量变化。
Microbiology: aseptic technique, culturing bacteria, and testing antibiotic effectiveness with discs. Always sterilise equipment, incubate at safe temperatures (not above 25°C in schools).
微生物学：无菌技术、培养细菌以及用纸片扩散法测试抗生素有效性。务必对设备进行灭菌，并在安全温度下培养（学校不超过25°C）。
Sampling: random sampling with quadrats; systematic sampling with transects. Calculate mean, median, mode, and range of data. Plot graphs accurately with labelled axes.
取样：使用样方进行随机取样；使用样带进行系统取样。计算数据的平均值、中位数、众数和范围。准确绘制图表并标注坐标轴。
9. Genetics and Evolution | 遗传与进化
Fossils provide evidence for evolution; they can be formed by mineralisation, casts, or preservation. The fossil record shows how organisms have changed over time.
化石为进化提供证据；它们可以通过矿化、铸模或保存形成。化石记录显示了生物如何随时间发生变化。
Classification is based on evolutionary relationships, now using DNA analysis in addition to morphology. The three-domain system divides life into Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukaryota.
分类基于进化关系，现在除了形态学外还使用DNA分析。三域系统将生命分为古菌域、细菌域和真核生物域。
Speciation can occur when populations are geographically isolated, leading to reproductive isolation and the formation of new species.
当种群在地理上隔离时，可能会导致生殖隔离并形成新物种，即物种形成。
10. Exam Technique Reminders | 考试技巧提醒
Read questions carefully, noting command words such as ‘describe’, ‘explain’, ‘compare’. Use data from tables and graphs in your answers. For ‘evaluate’ questions, give both pros and cons and a conclusion.
仔细阅读题目，注意指令词如“描述”、“解释”、“比较”。在答案中使用表格和图表中的数据。对于“评估”类问题，要给出优缺点并得出结论。
Manage your time: don’t spend too long on one section. Use scientific vocabulary correctly, and always state units. Label diagrams clearly with a ruler.
管理好时间：不要在某一题上花费过多时间。正确使用科学词汇，并始终注明单位。用尺子清晰地标注图表。
For calculation questions, show all working even if the final answer is wrong – you may still earn method marks. Check that answers are in the correct significant figures or decimal places.
对于计算题，即使最终答案错误，也要写出所有解题步骤——你仍可能获得过程分。检查答案的有效数字或小数位数是否正确。
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