📚 Oligopoly Exam Masterclass for GCSE CIE Economics | 寡头考点精讲
Oligopoly is one of the most fascinating and frequently examined market structures in GCSE CIE Economics. In this masterclass, you will learn the defining characteristics of oligopoly, how firms compete without changing prices, why prices tend to be sticky, and how game theory helps explain the tension between cooperation and competition. Each section pairs clear English explanations with Chinese translations, mirrors the mark schemes, and focuses on the exact depth CIE expects. Let’s turn oligopoly into your strongest topic.
寡头是 GCSE CIE 经济学中最引人入胜且经常考察的市场结构之一。在这堂精讲课中，你将学习寡头的定义特征、企业如何在不改变价格的情况下竞争、价格为何具有刚性，以及博弈论如何帮助解释合作与竞争之间的张力。每个部分都配有清晰的英文讲解和中文翻译，完全对标评分标准，并聚焦于 CIE 所要求的深度。让寡头成为你最拿手的专题吧。
1. What is an Oligopoly? | 什么是寡头市场？
An oligopoly is a market structure dominated by a small number of large firms. These firms are interdependent, meaning the actions of one firm directly affect the decisions of others. Examples include supermarkets, mobile phone networks, and commercial banks. Unlike perfect competition with many tiny sellers or monopoly with a single seller, oligopoly sits in between and behaves in unique ways.
寡头是一种由少数几家大企业主导的市场结构。这些企业互相依存，也就是说一家企业的行动会直接影响其他企业的决策。例子包括超市、移动通信网络和商业银行。与拥有众多小卖家的完全竞争或单一卖家的垄断不同，寡头介于两者之间，并以独特的方式运行。
The word ‘oligopoly’ comes from Greek roots meaning ‘few sellers’. The key number is not exact, but the market typically has three to eight dominant firms. In the UK grocery market, for instance, Tesco, Sainsbury’s, Asda, and Morrisons together hold a large share of sales. Because there are few players, each firm must anticipate rivals’ reactions before changing price, output, or marketing strategy. This interdependence makes oligopoly a strategic battlefield where non-price competition often becomes more important than price wars.
“寡头”一词源自希腊语，意为“少数卖家”。关键的企业数量并不精确，但市场通常有三到八家主导企业。以英国食品杂货市场为例，乐购、森宝利、阿斯达和莫里森四家共同占据很大销售份额。由于参与者很少，每家企业在改变价格、产量或营销策略前都必须预测竞争对手的反应。这种相互依存使寡头市场成为一个战略战场，非价格竞争往往比价格战更重要。
From the CIE exam perspective, you must be able to identify an oligopoly from data. A typical clue is a high concentration ratio, e.g. a four-firm concentration ratio above 60%. But oligopoly is not just about numbers – it is about mutual interdependence and strategic behaviour. Make sure your definition includes the phrase ‘a few large firms that dominate the market and are mutually interdependent’.
从 CIE 考试的角度，你必须能够从数据中识别寡头市场。一个典型的线索是高集中度比率，例如四企业集中度比率超过 60%。但寡头不仅是数量问题——它还涉及相互依存和策略行为。确保你的定义中包含“少数几家主导市场并互相依存的大企业”这一表述。
2. Key Characteristics of Oligopoly | 寡头的关键特征
The first characteristic is a small number of large sellers. The market is highly concentrated, meaning a few firms account for the majority of total output or sales. This can be measured by concentration ratios such as CR₃ (three-firm concentration ratio) or CR₅ (five-firm concentration ratio). A high concentration ratio signals oligopolistic power.
第一个特征是拥有少数几家大型卖方。市场高度集中，即少数企业占据了总产量或销售额的大部分。这可以通过集中度比率来衡量，如 CR₃（三企业集中度比率）或 CR₅（五企业集中度比率）。高集中度比率意味着寡头势力。
Second, firms produce differentiated products. Through branding, packaging, and product features, oligopolists try to make their goods appear distinct. Petrol stations sell chemically similar fuel but build brand loyalty through loyalty cards and shop quality. Hairdressers and car manufacturers also differentiate their offerings heavily. This allows firms to create some inelasticity in demand and avoid pure price competition.
第二，企业生产差异化产品。通过品牌、包装和产品特性，寡头企业试图使自家商品显得与众不同。加油站销售化学成分相似的燃油，但通过积分卡和便利店品质建立品牌忠诚度。理发店和汽车制造商也都大幅差异化其服务或产品。这使企业能在需求上制造一定的非弹性，避免纯粹的价格竞争。
Third, there are significant barriers to entry. Incumbent firms enjoy economies of scale, brand loyalty, legal patents, or control over key inputs that make it difficult for new rivals to enter. High start-up costs act as a barrier. For example, establishing a new supermarket chain requires enormous capital for stores, distribution networks, and supplier relationships. These barriers protect the profits of existing oligopolists in the long run.
第三，存在显著的进入壁垒。现有企业享有规模经济、品牌忠诚度、法律专利或对关键投入品的控制，这使得新竞争对手难以进入。高昂的启动成本也是一种壁垒。例如，建立一个全新的连锁超市需要巨额资本用于门店、配送网络和供应商关系。这些壁垒长期保护现有寡头的利润。
Fourth, firms are mutually interdependent. This is the hallmark of oligopoly. Because there are few competitors, each firm’s actions will trigger a reaction from rivals. A price cut by one supermarket is likely to be matched almost immediately by others to maintain market share. This strategic interdependence shapes pricing, output, advertising, and research decisions.
第四，企业之间互相依存。这是寡头的标志。由于竞争对手很少，一家企业的行动会引发对手的反应。一家超市降价，其他超市很可能立即跟进以维持市场份额。这种策略性相互依存影响着定价、产量、广告和研发决策。
3. Measuring Oligopoly – Concentration Ratios | 衡量寡头——集中度比率
Concentration ratios measure the combined market share of the top few firms. The most common are CR₃ (three firms) and CR₅ (five firms). For example, if the five largest mobile network operators hold 85% of the market by revenue, the five-firm concentration ratio is 85%. In CIE exams, you may be given a table of firm revenues and asked to calculate a concentration ratio or to decide whether an industry is oligopolistic.
集中度比率衡量前几家企业的合计市场份额。最常见的是 CR₃（三家）和 CR₅（五家）。例如，如果五家最大移动网络运营商按收入计算占据 85% 的市场份额，那么五企业集中度比率就是 85%。在 CIE 考试中，你可能会得到一张企业收入表格，被要求计算集中度比率或判断一个行业是否属于寡头。
A high concentration ratio (typically above 60% for a five-firm ratio) indicates an oligopolistic market. A ratio near 100% suggests near-monopoly, while a very low ratio points to a competitive market. However, concentration ratios do have limitations. They do not show the distribution of market share among the top firms. Two industries could both have a CR₅ of 80%, but one might be dominated by a single giant firm while the other has five roughly equal firms. They also ignore foreign competition and the threat of new entrants.
高集中度比率（五企业比率通常高于 60%）表明市场为寡头结构。接近 100% 的比率意味着近乎垄断，而极低的比率指向竞争性市场。但是，集中度比率也有局限性。它们没有显示顶层企业之间市场份额的分布。两个行业的 CR₅ 都可能为 80%，但一个可能是由单一巨头主导，另一个则可能由五家规模相近的企业组成。这些比率还忽略了来自国外的竞争以及新进入者的威胁。
Students often mix up concentration ratio with market share. Remember: the concentration ratio is the sum of the individual market shares of the top firms. A single firm’s market share is merely its own slice. When the combined share is high, oligopolists can collectively exercise market power, which might lead to higher prices for consumers unless strong non-price competition disciplines them.
学生常常混淆集中度比率和市场份额。请记住：集中度比率是前几家大企业各自市场份额的总和。单个企业的市场份额仅仅是它自己的一块。当总体份额很高时，寡头们可以集体行使市场力量，这可能导致消费者面临更高价格，除非激烈的非价格竞争约束了它们。
4. Non-price Competition – The Battle beyond Price | 非价格竞争——超越价格的战斗
In oligopoly, firms often avoid price wars because they can trigger retaliatory price cuts that reduce profits for everyone. Instead, they compete through non-price means: advertising, branding, loyalty schemes, product quality, packaging, after-sales service, and innovation. This type of competition shifts the demand curve for an individual firm to the right and may make its demand more inelastic by strengthening brand loyalty.
在寡头市场中，企业通常避免价格战，因为价格战会引发报复性降价，最终降低所有人的利润。相反，它们通过非价格手段进行竞争：广告、品牌塑造、积分计划、产品质量、包装、售后服务和创新。这类竞争将单个企业的需求曲线向右移动，并通过强化品牌忠诚度使需求更加缺乏弹性。
Advertising is the most visible form of non-price competition. Supermarkets use TV commercials, social media campaigns, and in-store promotions to build an image of value or quality. Mobile phone companies differentiate through data packages, roaming benefits, and handset deals. These tactics do not change the price itself but raise demand and create brand loyalty, making consumers less sensitive to small price differences.
广告是最显眼的非价格竞争形式。超市利用电视广告、社交媒体推广和店内促销来建立物有所值或高品质的形象。移动通信企业通过数据套餐、漫游优惠和手机合约进行差异化。这些策略本身并不改变价格，但能提高需求并创造品牌忠诚度，使消费者对微小的价格差异不那么敏感。
Innovation, another key weapon, involves developing new products or improving existing ones. In the smartphone industry, firms constantly introduce better cameras, longer battery life, and faster processors. Such innovation can give a firm a temporary competitive advantage and allow it to charge a premium price. Research and development (R&D) spending thus becomes a strategic tool in oligopolistic markets.
创新是另一个关键武器，包括开发新产品或改进现有产品。在智能手机行业，企业不断推出更好的摄像头、更长的电池续航和更快的处理器。这类创新可以赋予企业暂时的竞争优势，令其能收取高价。因此，研发支出成为寡头市场中的策略工具。
5. Price Rigidity and the Kinked Demand Curve | 价格刚性与弯折的需求曲线
One of the most distinctive outcomes in an oligopoly is price rigidity – prices tend to remain stable even when costs change slightly. The kinked demand curve model explains this behaviour. The model assumes that if a firm raises its price, rivals will not follow, so the firm loses many customers (demand is elastic above the current price). However, if a firm lowers its price, rivals will match the cut to protect their market share, so the firm gains few extra customers (demand is inelastic below the current price).
寡头市场最显著的结果之一是价格刚性——即使成本略有变动，价格也往往保持稳定。弯折的需求曲线模型解释了这一行为。该模型假设：如果一家企业提价，对手不会跟随，因此该企业会损失大量顾客（当前价格之上的需求富有弹性）。但是，如果一家企业降价，对手会纷纷跟进以保护市场份额，因此该企业只能获得极少额外顾客（当前价格之下的需求缺乏弹性）。
This creates a ‘kink’ at the prevailing market price. The demand curve is relatively flat above the kink (elastic) and steeper below it (inelastic). Because of this asymmetry, firms have little incentive to change prices. A price increase would cut revenue sharply, while a price decrease would bring only a small rise in quantity sold but at a lower price, likely reducing total revenue. The marginal revenue curve becomes discontinuous (vertical gap) at the kink, meaning small shifts in marginal cost do not change the profit-maximising price. This explains why oligopolistic markets often experience sticky prices.
这就形成了市场价格处的一个“弯折”。需求曲线在弯折点以上相对平坦（富有弹性），在弯折点以下则较为陡峭（缺乏弹性）。由于这种不对称性，企业几乎没有动机去改变价格。提价会大幅削减收入，降价则只能带来少量销量增长并且会降低售价，很可能减少总收入。边际收益曲线在弯折处变得不连续（出现垂直缺口），这意味着边际成本的小幅变动不会改变利润最大化价格。这就解释了为什么寡头市场价格常常具有粘性。
For CIE exams, you should be able to draw and interpret the kinked demand curve. Label the elastic and inelastic sections correctly, show the current price and quantity, and illustrate how a cost increase within the vertical gap of the MR curve does not alter the price. Remember to state that this model provides a plausible explanation for price stability but is a simplification; real-world oligopolists do sometimes change prices, especially when costs rise persistently or when a firm believes it can gain a lasting advantage.
对 CIE 考试而言，你应当能够画出并解读弯折的需求曲线。正确标注弹性段和缺乏弹性段，展示当前价格和数量，并说明在边际收益曲线垂直缺口内成本上升如何不会改变价格。记住说明该模型为价格稳定提供了一种合理解释，但它是简化模型；现实世界中的寡头有时确实会改变价格，尤其是当成本持续上升或企业确信能获得持久优势时。
6. Collusive Behaviour – Formal and Tacit Collusion | 合谋行为——正式合谋与默契合谋
Because oligopolists are interdependent, they have a strong incentive to cooperate rather than compete aggressively. Collusion occurs when firms act together to limit competition, usually by agreeing on prices, output levels, or market sharing. Formal collusion involves an explicit agreement, often called a cartel. The most famous global example is OPEC, where oil-producing countries agree on production quotas to influence oil prices. Such cartels aim to maximise joint profits, behaving like a monopoly.
由于寡头企业相互依存，它们有很强的动机进行合作而非激烈竞争。合谋是指企业共同行动以限制竞争，通常表现为就价格、产量或市场划分达成协议。正式合谋涉及明确的协议，通常被称为卡特尔。最著名的全球案例是欧佩克（OPEC），石油生产国通过商定产量配额来影响油价。这类卡特尔旨在使共同利润最大化，行为像垄断者。
Tacit collusion, on the other hand, happens without formal agreements. Firms may follow the price leader – usually the dominant firm in the industry – without any written communication. For example, when one airline raises fuel surcharge, others follow suit in the next few days. This is sometimes called ‘conscious parallelism’. While tacit collusion is harder to prove and often escapes legal penalties, competition authorities in many countries still investigate such coordinated behaviour.
另一方面，默契合谋在无正式协议的情况下发生。企业可能跟随价格领导者——通常是行业内的主导企业——而无任何书面沟通。例如，一家航空公司提高燃油附加费后，其他航空公司在几天内也跟进。这有时被称为“有意识的一致行为”。尽管默契合谋更难被证实且常免于法律处罚，但许多国家的竞争主管机构仍会调查此类协同行为。
Collusion, whether formal or tacit, harms consumer welfare by pushing prices above competitive levels and reducing output. It also reduces the incentive for firms to cut costs and innovate. In the UK and EU, cartels are illegal and can result in heavy fines. In exams, you may be asked to evaluate the effects of collusion on consumers, firms, and efficiency. Always note that collusion can break down due to the incentive to cheat – which we explore next using game theory.
无论是正式合谋还是默契合谋，都通过将价格推高至竞争水平之上并降低产量，损害了消费者福利。它也削弱了企业削减成本和创新的动力。在英国和欧盟，卡特尔是违法的，可能导致巨额罚款。在考试中，你可能需要评估合谋对消费者、企业和效率的影响。始终要指出，合谋可能由于存在欺骗的动机而瓦解——我们接下来用博弈论来探讨这一点。
7. Game Theory and the Prisoner’s Dilemma | 博弈论与囚徒困境
Game theory is a way of modelling strategic interaction where the outcome for each participant depends on the choices of all. In oligopoly, firms face a classic prisoner’s dilemma. Imagine two firms, A and B, each deciding whether to charge a high price (cooperate) or a low price (compete). If both charge high, they enjoy healthy industry profits. If one charges low while the other charges high, the price cutter steals market share and earns much higher profits, leaving the high-price firm with heavy losses. If both charge low, they end up in a price war with low profits for both.
博弈论是一种对策略互动进行建模的方法，在这种互动中，每个参与者的结果取决于所有参与者的选择。在寡头市场中，企业面临经典的囚徒困境。假设有两家企业 A 和 B，各自决定是收取高价（合作）还是低价（竞争）。如果双方都收高价，它们享受良好的行业利润。如果一方收低价而另一方收高价，降价者抢走市场份额并获得高得多的利润，留下高价企业遭受重大损失。如果双方都收低价，它们最终陷入价格战，双方利润都很低。
The dominant strategy for each firm is to cheat and charge the low price, because regardless of what the rival does, cheating yields a better individual outcome. Yet when both cheat, the collective result is worse than if they had cooperated. This tension explains why cartels are inherently unstable – each member has a private incentive to undercut the agreed price or exceed the output quota. Game theory reinforces the idea that oligopoly pricing is shaped by mutual suspicion and strategic thinking.
对每家企业而言，占优策略都是欺骗并收取低价，因为无论对手怎么做，欺骗都能带来更好的个体结果。然而，当双方都欺骗时，集体结果反而不如合作时好。这种张力解释了为何卡特尔天生不稳定——每个成员都有私下动机去削低协议价格或超出产量配额。博弈论强化了这样一个观点：寡头定价是由相互猜疑和策略性思维塑造的。
In CIE exam questions, you may need to interpret a simple payoff matrix and explain why firms might collude or compete. Key terms include ‘dominant strategy’, ‘Nash equilibrium’, and ‘collusive outcome’. For GCSE, you are not expected to compute complicated equilibria, but you do need to understand that individual rationality can lead to a collectively suboptimal result, and that communication and enforcement mechanisms (such as in formal cartels) can sometimes overcome this, though they are often illegal.
在 CIE 考试题目中，你可能需要解读一个简单的支付矩阵，并解释企业为何会选择合谋或竞争。关键术语包括“占优策略”、“纳什均衡”和“合谋结果”。对于 GCSE，你不需要计算复杂的均衡，但需要理解个体理性可能导致集体次优结果，而沟通和执行机制（如正式卡特尔中所见）有时能克服这一点，尽管它们往往是非法的。
8. Advantages and Disadvantages of Oligopoly for Consumers | 寡头对消费者的利与弊
Oligopoly brings mixed outcomes for consumers. On the positive side, non-price competition can generate significant benefits. Heavy advertising can inform consumers about product differences, making choices easier. Intense branding rivalry can lead to quality improvements, free delivery, extended warranties, and after-sales service. Innovation driven by large R&D budgets can produce better products over time – smartphones have become vastly more powerful partly because a few firms compete fiercely on features.
寡头给消费者带来了好坏参半的结果。积极的一面是，非价格竞争可以产生显著好处。大量广告能告知消费者产品差异，让选择更容易。激烈的品牌竞争可带来质量改进、免费配送、延长保修和售后服务。由庞大研发预算驱动的创新能够逐步生产出更好的产品——智能手机变得强大得多，部分原因就在于少数企业在功能上激烈竞争。
However, the negative side is equally important. Oligopolistic markets often result in higher prices than would prevail under more competitive conditions, especially when collusion limits price rivalry. Choice can be artificially restricted if a few firms dominate and eliminate smaller players. Advertising may be wasteful, serving only to persuade rather than inform, and the associated costs are ultimately passed on to consumers. Moreover, tacit collusion can maintain high prices without the consumer even being aware of anticompetitive coordination.
然而，消极面同样重要。寡头市场往往导致价格高于更充分竞争情况下的价格，尤其是当合谋限制了价格竞争时。如果少数企业主导并消灭了较小参与者，消费者的选择可能被人为限制。广告有时具有浪费性，仅仅用于劝诱而非告知，相关成本最终会转嫁给消费者。此外，默契合谋可以在消费者甚至意识不到反竞争协调行为的情况下维持高价。
From an evaluative perspective, the net effect depends on the strength of non-price competition relative to any collusive tendency. In markets like mobile phones, non-price benefits appear substantial and innovation is rapid. In industries like energy supply, the potential for tacit collusion has attracted regulatory scrutiny. When constructing an exam answer, always weight both sides and avoid making a blanket statement that oligopoly is ‘bad’ or ‘good’ – the examiner wants a balanced evaluation.
从评价角度看，净效应取决于非价格竞争的强度相对于任何合谋倾向的大小。在手机等市场，非价格好处看来可观，创新也很快。在能源供应等行业，默契合谋的潜力已引起监管审查。在构建考试答案时，始终要权衡正反两面，避免笼统地说寡头“坏”或“好”——考官想要的是平衡的评价。
9. Real-world Examples for Your Exams | 考试可以用的现实例子
Using real-world examples lifts your answers from descriptive to analytical. The UK supermarket sector is a classic oligopoly. The four-firm concentration ratio (CR₄) often exceeds 65%, and non-price competition is ferocious: loyalty cards, home delivery, ‘Little Waitrose’ convenience stores, and price-matching schemes. Despite occasional price cuts on key items, the overall price level has been relatively stable, supporting the kinked demand curve theory.
使用现实例子能将你的答案从描述性提升到分析性。英国超市行业就是典型的寡头。四企业集中度比率（CR₄）通常超过 65%，非价格竞争极为激烈：积分卡、送货上门、“Little Waitrose”便利店以及价格匹配计划。尽管部分关键商品偶尔降价，但总体价格水平一直相对稳定，这支撑了弯折需求曲线理论。
The mobile phone network industry (e.g. EE, Vodafone, Three, O2 in the UK) is another strong example. Firms differentiate through network coverage, data speeds, and exclusive handsets rather than purely on price. The market shows high barriers to entry due to spectrum licences and infrastructure costs. Tacit collusion is suspected when contract prices rise in similar proportions across networks, though no formal cartel exists.
移动通信网络行业（如英国的 EE、沃达丰、Three、O2）是另一个有力例子。企业通过信号覆盖范围、数据速度和独家手机合约而非纯粹价格进行差异化。由于频谱牌照和基础设施成本，该市场存在高进入壁垒。当各网络运营商套餐价格以相似比例上涨时，人们会怀疑存在默契合谋，尽管没有正式卡特尔。
Global examples include the soft drinks market (Coca-Cola and PepsiCo), which is a tight duopoly where advertising and brand image dominate the rivalry. The airline industry on busy routes is often oligopolistic, where price-matching and loyalty programmes are standard. These examples can be adapted to many CIE questions, including discuss and evaluate essays. Just two or three well-explained examples are enough to demonstrate application marks.
全球例子包括软饮料市场（可口可乐和百事公司），这是一个广告和品牌形象主导竞争的紧密双头垄断。繁忙航线上的航空业也往往是寡头格局，价格跟进和常旅客计划成为标准做法。这些例子可以适配许多 CIE 题目，包括讨论和评价型论文。只需两三个阐述清楚的例子就足以展示应用分数。
10. Exam Technique and Common Pitfalls | 考试技巧与常见误区
First, always define oligopoly before diving into analysis. A quick two-sentence definition mentioning ‘few large firms, mutual interdependence, high concentration ratio’ secures knowledge marks. Then apply the theory to the case study or question. If the question provides data, refer to specific numbers – e.g. ‘The three-firm concentration ratio of 78% indicates a highly concentrated oligopolistic market.’ This shows application skills.
首先，在深入分析之前一定要定义寡头。快速用两句话给出定义，提及“少数大企业、相互依存、高集中度比率”，就能拿到知识分。然后将理论应用到案例或问题情境中。如果题目提供了数据，要引用具体数字——例如，“三企业集中度比率达 78%，表明这是一个高度集中的寡头市场。”这体现了应用技能。
Common mistake 1: Treating oligopoly as if it were monopoly. Oligopolists face competition, albeit among few rivals. Always mention interdependence and strategic reactions. Mistake 2: Forgetting the word ‘interdependent’ – this single term often picks up a vital mark. Mistake 3: Drawing the kinked demand curve inaccurately. Ensure the upper segment is flatter and the lower segment steeper, with a clear kink. Do not draw two separate lines – the curve is continuous but piecewise linear.
常见误区一：将寡头当作垄断处理。寡头固然面临有限的竞争对手，但仍是竞争性的。务必提及相互依存和策略反应。误区二：遗漏“相互依存”一词——这个关键词常常能拿下关键一分。误区三：弯折的需求曲线画得不准。确保上段更平坦，下段更陡峭，并有一个清晰的弯折点。不要画成两条分离的线——曲线是连续的，但是分段线性的。
For 8-mark and 12-mark evaluate questions, structure your answer with both sides. For example, evaluate whether consumers benefit from an oligopolistic market structure. You could argue that non-price competition and innovation benefit consumers, but prices may be higher than in competitive markets and collusion can reduce choice. Always finish with a justified conclusion, e.g. ‘On balance, consumers benefit from innovation and service quality, but only when competitive pressures outweigh the temptation to collude.’
对于 8 分和 12 分的评价类题目，要从正反两方面组织答案。例如，评价消费者是否从寡头市场结构中受益。你可以论证非价格竞争和创新使消费者受益，但价格可能高于竞争性市场，且合谋会减少选择。总是以有理有据的结论结尾，例如，“总体而言，消费者能从创新和服务质量中受益，但前提是竞争压力压倒了合谋的诱惑。”
Finally, do not confuse mutual interdependence with interdependence in a macroeconomic sense. In oligopoly, it is about firms watching rivals’ price and output decisions. Use a payoff matrix or a short prisoner’s dilemma explanation to show strategic thinking if the question mentions price wars or collusion. Practice past CIE paper 2 questions on oligopoly to get comfortable with the command words ‘explain’, ‘analyse’, and ‘evaluate’.
最后，不要将“相互依存”与宏观经济意义上的相互依赖混淆。在寡头中，它是指企业时刻关注对手的定价和产量决策。如果题目提到价格战或合谋，可以用支付矩阵或简短的囚徒困境解释来展示策略思维。多练习 CIE 真题卷二中关于寡头的题目，熟悉“解释”、“分析”和“评价”等指令词。
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