A-Level CIE Economics: Formula Handbook | A-Level CIE 经济：公式汇总手册

📚 A-Level CIE Economics: Formula Handbook | A-Level CIE 经济：公式汇总手册

This handbook brings together the essential formulas that every A-Level CIE Economics student must know. From elasticity and cost calculations to national income accounting and international trade, mastering these expressions will sharpen your analysis and boost your exam confidence. Use this revision tool to consolidate your quantitative skills and link each formula to key economic concepts.

这本手册汇总了每位 A-Level CIE 经济学生必须掌握的核心公式。从弹性和成本计算，到国民收入核算与国际贸易，掌握这些表达式将提升你的分析能力并增强考试信心。利用这份复习工具巩固你的量化技能，并将每个公式与关键经济概念联系起来。

1. Elasticity Formulas | 弹性公式

Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures how responsive quantity demanded is to a change in price. It is the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price.

需求价格弹性 (PED) 衡量需求量对价格变动的反应程度。它等于需求量变化的百分比除以价格变化的百分比。

PED = (%ΔQd) ÷ (%ΔP)

Income elasticity of demand (YED) captures the responsiveness of demand to changes in income. A positive YED indicates a normal good; a negative YED signals an inferior good.

需求收入弹性 (YED) 衡量需求对收入变动的反应程度。正的 YED 表示正常品；负的 YED 表示低档品。

YED = (%ΔQd) ÷ (%ΔY)

Cross-price elasticity of demand (XED) shows how the demand for one good reacts to a price change in another good. Positive XED implies substitutes, while negative XED suggests complements.

需求交叉价格弹性 (XED) 显示一种商品的需求对另一种商品价格变动的反应。正的 XED 意味着替代品，负的 XED 意味着互补品。

XED = (%ΔQd of Good A) ÷ (%ΔP of Good B)

Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to price changes. A value greater than 1 indicates elastic supply; less than 1 indicates inelastic supply.

供给价格弹性 (PES) 衡量供给量对价格变动的反应程度。大于 1 表示供给富有弹性；小于 1 表示供给缺乏弹性。

PES = (%ΔQs) ÷ (%ΔP)

2. Revenue, Cost and Profit | 收益、成本与利润

Total revenue (TR

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