📚 IB & Edexcel Economics: End-of-Term Revision Guide | IB 与 Edexcel 经济学期末复习提纲
As the term draws to a close, a structured revision of key economic concepts is essential for students following either the IB Diploma or Edexcel A-Level Economics syllabus. This revision guide covers the core topics that appear in both curricula, from microeconomic foundations to macroeconomic policies and international trade. Use these notes to consolidate understanding, practise diagrams, and apply real-world examples in your exam responses.
随着学期结束，为 IB 文凭或 Edexcel A-Level 经济学课程的学生提供系统化的关键概念复习至关重要。本复习提纲涵盖了这两个课程共同的核心主题，从微观经济学基础到宏观经济政策和国际贸易。请利用这些笔记来巩固理解、练习图表绘制，并在考试答题中运用实际案例。
1. Scarcity and Choice | 稀缺性与选择
The fundamental economic problem is scarcity: unlimited human wants facing limited resources. This forces societies to answer three basic questions: what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce. The concept of opportunity cost captures the value of the next best alternative forgone.
根本的经济问题是稀缺性：无限的人类欲望面对有限的资源。这迫使社会回答三个基本问题：生产什么、如何生产、为谁生产。机会成本的概念体现的是放弃的次优选择的价值。
A production possibility curve (PPC) illustrates maximum output combinations of two goods, showing trade-offs, opportunity cost, and economic growth. Points inside the curve indicate inefficient use of resources.
生产可能性曲线（PPC）展示两种商品的最大产出组合，说明权衡取舍、机会成本和经济增长。曲线内部的点表示资源未得到有效利用。
- Positive vs normative statements: Positive statements are fact-based and testable, while normative statements involve value judgements.
- 实证陈述与规范陈述：实证陈述基于事实且可检验，而规范陈述涉及价值判断。
2. Demand and Supply | 需求与供给
The law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as price falls, quantity demanded rises. The demand curve slopes downward. Shifts are caused by non-price determinants such as income, tastes, and prices of related goods.
需求定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格下降，需求量上升。需求曲线向下倾斜。曲线的移动由非价格因素引起，如收入、偏好及相关商品的价格。
The law of supply: as price rises, quantity supplied rises. Supply curve shifts result from changes in costs of production, technology, taxes, and subsidies.
供给定律：价格上升，供给量上升。供给曲线的移动源于生产成本、技术、税收和补贴的变化。
Market equilibrium occurs where demand equals supply, determining price and quantity. Excess demand pushes prices up; excess supply pushes prices down.
市场均衡发生在需求等于供给之处，决定价格和数量。超额需求推高价格；超额供给压低价格。
Consumer surplus is the difference between what consumers are willing to pay and what they actually pay. Producer surplus is the difference between the market price and the marginal cost of production. These measures help evaluate welfare effects of government intervention.
消费者剩余是消费者愿意支付的价格与实际支付价格之间的差额。生产者剩余是市场价格与生产边际成本之间的差额。这些指标有助于评估政府干预的福利效果。
3. Elasticity | 弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. The formula is:
需求价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。公式如下：
PED = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔP
When |PED| > 1, demand is elastic; when |PED| < 1, demand is inelastic. Determinants include availability of substitutes, necessity versus luxury, and time period.
当 |PED| > 1，需求富有弹性；当 |PED| < 1，需求缺乏弹性。决定因素包括替代品的数量、商品是必需品还是奢侈品以及时间范围。
For elastic demand, a price fall increases total revenue; for inelastic demand, a price rise increases total revenue. Firms use this for pricing strategies.
对于富有弹性的需求，降价会增加总收入；对于缺乏弹性的需求，涨价会增加总收入。企业利用这一点制定定价策略。
Income elasticity of demand (YED) and cross-price elasticity (XED) help classify goods as normal, inferior, substitutes, or complements. Price elasticity of supply (PES) depends on production flexibility and time.
需求收入弹性（YED）和交叉弹性（XED）有助于将商品分为正常品、劣等品、替代品或互补品。供给价格弹性（PES）取决于生产的灵活性和时间。
4. Government Intervention | 政府干预
Governments intervene in markets through indirect taxes, subsidies, price controls, and regulation. An indirect tax shifts the supply curve leftward, raising price and reducing quantity. The tax burden is shared between consumers and producers depending on relative elasticities.
政府通过间接税、补贴、价格管制和监管干预市场。间接税使供给曲线左移，提高价格并减少数量。税负由消费者和生产者根据相对弹性分担。
Subsidies shift supply right, lowering price and increasing output. Maximum and minimum price controls can lead to shortages or surpluses, often creating unintended consequences such as black markets.
补贴使供给曲线右移，降低价格并增加产量。最高和最低价格管制可能导致短缺或过剩，常常产生黑市等意想不到的后果。
5. Market Failure | 市场失灵
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Key types include externalities, public goods, information asymmetry, and market power.
市场失灵指自由市场未能有效配置资源。主要类型包括外部性、公共物品、信息不对称和市场势力。
Negative production externalities (e.g., pollution) cause overproduction because private costs are lower than social costs. Positive consumption externalities (e.g., education) lead to underconsumption.
负生产外部性（如污染）由于私人成本低于社会成本而导致过度生产。正消费外部性（如教育）则导致消费不足。
Public goods are non-rival and non-excludable, leading to the free-rider problem. Governments can correct market failure through taxation, subsidies, regulation, or direct provision.
公共物品具有非竞争性和非排他性，导致搭便车问题。政府可通过税收、补贴、监管或直接提供来纠正市场失灵。
6. Macroeconomic Objectives | 宏观经济目标
Governments aim for low and stable inflation, low unemployment, sustainable economic growth, and a satisfactory balance of payments. Conflicts can arise, such as between growth and inflation, or unemployment and the current account.
政府的目标包括低且稳定的通胀、低失业、可持续的经济增长和令人满意的国际收支平衡。目标之间可能出现冲突，如增长与通胀之间，或失业与经常账户之间。
Inflation is measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Unemployment is measured by the claimant count or labour force survey. Economic growth is the increase in real GDP over time.
通胀通过消费者价格指数（CPI）衡量。失业通过申请失业救济人数或劳动力调查来衡量。经济增长是实际 GDP 随时间的增长。
The short-run Phillips curve shows an inverse relationship between inflation and unemployment. However, in the long run, there is no trade-off, as the curve becomes vertical at the natural rate of unemployment.
短期菲利普斯曲线显示通胀与失业之间呈反向关系。但在长期不存在权衡取舍，曲线在自然失业率处垂直。
7. Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply | 总需求与总供给
Aggregate demand (AD) is the total spending on domestic output at a given price level: AD = C + I + G + (X − M). The AD curve slopes downward due to wealth, interest rate, and trade effects.
总需求（AD）是在给定价格水平下对国内产出的总支出：AD = C + I + G + (X − M)。由于财富效应、利率效应和贸易效应，AD 曲线向下倾斜。
The multiplier effect occurs when an initial injection into the circular flow leads to a larger final increase in national income. The formula is:
乘数效应是指对经济循环流的初始注入导致国民收入的最终增加幅度更大。公式如下：
Multiplier = 1 ÷ (1 − MPC) or 1 ÷ (MPS + MPT + MPM)
Short-run aggregate supply (SRAS) slopes upward; shifts occur due to changes in input costs, taxes, or supply shocks. Long-run aggregate supply (LRAS) is vertical at the full-employment output, influenced by quantity and quality of factors of production.
短期总供给（SRAS）曲线向上倾斜；由投入成本、税收或供给冲击的变化而移动。长期总供给（LRAS）在充分就业产出水平上垂直，受生产要素的数量和质量影响。
Macroeconomic equilibrium determines the price level and real output. Shifts in AD or AS can cause demand-pull or cost-push inflation.
宏观经济均衡决定价格水平和实际产出。AD 或 AS 的移动可导致需求拉动型或成本推动型通胀。
8. Fiscal Policy | 财政政策
Fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation to influence the economy. Expansionary fiscal policy (higher spending, lower taxes) boosts AD; contractionary policy reduces inflationary pressure.
财政政策涉及政府支出和税收，对经济施加影响。扩张性财政政策（增加支出、减税）刺激总需求；紧缩性政策缓解通胀压力。
Automatic stabilisers such as progressive taxes and unemployment benefits work without discretionary action. The budget balance shows the difference between revenue and expenditure; a deficit can crowd out private investment.
自动稳定器如累进税和失业救济金可在没有自由裁量行动的情况下发挥作用。预算平衡显示收入与支出的差额；赤字可能会挤出私人投资。
9. Monetary Policy | 货币政策
Monetary policy, conducted by central banks, controls money supply and interest rates to achieve price stability. A lower interest rate stimulates borrowing and investment, increasing AD. Quantitative easing (QE) is used when rates near zero.
由中央银行实施的货币政策控制货币供给和利率，以实现价格稳定。降低利率能刺激借贷和投资，增加总需求。当利率接近零时，会使用量化宽松（QE）。
Transmission mechanism: change in official rate → market rates → consumption and investment → AD → inflation. Exchange rate and asset prices are also channels.
传导机制：官方利率变动 → 市场利率 → 消费和投资 → AD → 通胀。汇率和资产价格也是传导渠道。
10. International Trade | 国际贸易
Comparative advantage explains why countries benefit from trade: a country should specialise in goods where it has a lower opportunity cost. Trade increases global output and consumer choice.
比较优势解释了国家为何从贸易中获益：各国应专业化生产机会成本较低的商品。贸易提高了全球产量和消费者选择。
Terms of trade measure the ratio of export prices to import prices. An improvement means a country can buy more imports for a given quantity of exports.
贸易条件衡量出口价格与进口价格的比率。改善意味着一国能用给定数量的出口换取更多进口。
Protectionism uses tariffs, quotas, and subsidies to shield domestic industries. While protecting jobs, it raises prices and reduces efficiency. Free trade agreements aim to reduce these barriers.
贸易保护主义运用关税、配额和补贴来保护国内产业。在保护就业的同时，推高了价格并降低了效率。自由贸易协定旨在减少这些壁垒。
11. Exchange Rates | 汇率
An exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. In a floating system, it is determined by demand and supply. Appreciation makes exports dearer and imports cheaper, worsening the trade balance.
汇率是一种货币以另一种货币表示的价格。在浮动汇率制度下，由需求和供给决定。升值使出口更贵、进口更便宜，从而恶化贸易收支。
A fixed exchange rate is pegged by the central bank, requiring reserves. A managed float combines market forces with intervention. Changes influence AD, inflation, and external debt.
固定汇率由中央银行钉住，需要外汇储备。管理浮动汇率结合市场力量与干预。汇率变动影响总需求、通胀和外债。
12. Development Economics | 发展经济学
Economic development goes beyond GDP growth, encompassing health, education, and living standards. Indicators include the Human Development Index (HDI). Barriers to development include poor infrastructure, corruption, and debt.
经济发展超越 GDP 增长，涵盖健康、教育和生活水平。指标包括人类发展指数（HDI）。发展障碍包括基础设施薄弱、腐败和债务。
Strategies for growth include trade liberalisation, foreign direct investment, aid, and microfinance. Sustainable development addresses environmental degradation and inequality.
增长战略包括贸易自由化、外国直接投资、援助和小额信贷。可持续发展应对环境退化和不平等问题。
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