📚 A-Level Chemistry: Essential English Vocabulary Summary | A-Level 化学：必考英文词汇汇总
Mastering precise scientific terminology in English is a passport to top marks in A-Level Chemistry. This article pulls together the most frequently examined vocabulary – not just definitions, but the exact phrasings that examiners expect you to use in explanations, calculations and practical write-ups.
掌握精准的英文化学术语是 A-Level 化学拿高分的通行证。本文汇整了最高频的必考词汇——不仅是定义，更是你在解释、计算和实验报告中必须使用的标准表述。
1. Atomic Structure | 原子结构
Atom: The smallest electrically neutral particle of an element that retains its chemical identity, composed of a positively charged nucleus surrounded by a cloud of electrons.
原子：元素保持其化学性质的最小电中性粒子，由一个带正电的原子核和围绕的电子云构成。
Nucleus: The dense central part of an atom containing protons and neutrons; almost all mass is concentrated here.
原子核：原子致密的中心部分，包含质子和中子；原子的几乎全部质量都集中于此。
Proton number (Z): The number of protons in the nucleus, which determines the identity of the element. Also called the atomic number.
质子数 (Z)：原子核中的质子数目，决定了元素的种类。也称为原子序数。
Mass number (A): The total number of protons plus neutrons in the nucleus.
质量数 (A)：原子核中质子数与中子数的总和。
Isotope: Atoms of the same element (same Z) that have different numbers of neutrons, thus different mass numbers. They exhibit identical chemical behaviour but slightly differing physical properties.
同位素：质子数相同而中子数不同的同种元素的原子。它们的化学行为相同，但物理性质略有差异。
Relative atomic mass (Aᵣ): The weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared with 1/12 the mass of a carbon‑12 atom.
相对原子质量 (Aᵣ)：元素一个原子的加权平均质量与一个碳‑12 原子质量的 1/12 之比。
Atomic orbital: A region of space around the nucleus where there is a high probability (typically >90%) of finding an electron. Orbitals are labelled s, p, d and f.
原子轨道：原子核外电子出现概率很高（通常 >90%）的空间区域。轨道分为 s、p、d 和 f。
Electronic configuration: The arrangement of electrons in energy levels, sub‑levels and orbitals, e.g. 1s² 2s² 2p⁶ for Ne.
电子排布：电子在能层、亚层和轨道中的排布方式，如 Ne 的 1s² 2s² 2p⁶。
First ionisation energy: The energy required to remove one mole of electrons from one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
第一电离能：从一摩尔气态原子中移去一摩尔电子，生成一摩尔气态 1+ 离子所需的能量。
2. Chemical Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构
Ionic bond: The electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions formed by electron transfer, typically between a metal and a non‑metal.
离子键：带相反电荷的离子之间的静电引力，由电子转移形成，通常在金属和非金属之间。
Covalent bond: The strong electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of two atoms.
共价键：一对共用电子与两个原子核之间的强静电吸引力。
Dative (coordinate) covalent bond: A covalent bond in which both electrons in the shared pair originate from the same atom.
配位共价键：共用电子对的两个电子均来自同一个原子的共价键。
Metallic bond: The electrostatic attraction between a lattice of positive metal ions and a ‘sea’ of delocalised electrons.
金属键：金属正离子晶格与离域电子“海洋”之间的静电引力。
Electronegativity: The power of an atom to attract the bonding pair of electrons in a covalent bond towards itself.
电负性：一个原子在共价键中吸引电子对的能力。
Polar bond: A covalent bond where the electron pair is unequally shared, giving a partial charge separation (δ⁺ and δ⁻).
极性键：电子对共享不均的共价键，导致部分电荷分离 (δ⁺ 和 δ⁻)。
VSEPR theory: Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion – electron pairs around a central atom repel and position themselves as far apart as possible, determining molecular shape.
VSEPR 理论：价层电子对互斥理论——中心原子周围的电子对相互排斥，尽量远离，从而决定分子的形状。
Giant covalent structure: A network of atoms held together by covalent bonds throughout the whole structure (e.g. diamond, graphite, SiO₂).
巨型共价结构：整个结构中遍布共价键的原子网络（如金刚石、石墨、SiO₂）。
Intermolecular force: Attractive forces between molecules, much weaker than covalent or ionic bonds. Includes London forces, dipole‑dipole interactions and hydrogen bonds.
分子间作用力：分子之间的吸引力，远弱于共价键或离子键。包括伦敦力、偶极‑偶极作用和氢键。
Hydrogen bond: A strong dipole‑dipole attraction between a lone pair on a highly electronegative atom (N, O or F) and a hydrogen atom covalently bonded to another N, O or F.
氢键：一个强电负性原子 (N、O 或 F) 上的孤对电子与另一个与 N、O 或 F 共价键合的氢原子之间的强偶极‑偶极吸引。
3. Energetics | 能量学
Enthalpy change (ΔH): The heat energy change measured at constant pressure. Units: kJ mol⁻¹.
焓变 (ΔH)：在恒压下测量的热量变化。单位：kJ mol⁻¹。
Exothermic reaction: A reaction that releases heat energy to the surroundings; ΔH is negative and the temperature of the surroundings increases.
放热反应：向环境释放热量的反应，ΔH 为负，环境温度升高。
Endothermic reaction: A reaction that absorbs heat energy from the surroundings; ΔH is positive and the temperature of the surroundings decreases.
吸热反应：从环境吸收热量的反应，ΔH 为正，环境温度降低。
Standard enthalpy of combustion (ΔH°): The enthalpy change when one mole of a substance is completely burned in oxygen under standard conditions.
标准燃烧焓 (ΔH°)：在标准条件下，一摩尔物质完全在氧气中燃烧时的焓变。
Standard enthalpy of formation (ΔH°): The enthalpy change when one mole of a compound is formed from its elements in their standard states under standard conditions.
标准生成焓 (ΔH°)：在标准条件下，由标准状态下的元素生成一摩尔化合物时的焓变。
Hess’s law: The total enthalpy change for a reaction is independent of the route taken, provided the initial and final conditions are the same.
赫斯定律：反应的总焓变与途径无关，只要始终态条件相同。
Mean bond enthalpy: The average energy required to break one mole of a given covalent bond in the gaseous state, averaged over a range of compounds.
平均键焓：在气态下，断开一摩尔特定共价键所需的平均能量，取了一系列化合物的平均值。
Calorimetry: An experimental technique measuring heat changes using a calorimeter; key formula q = mcΔT.
量热法：用量热计测量热量变化的实验技术；关键公式 q = mcΔT。
4. Chemical Kinetics | 化学动力学
Rate of reaction: The change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time; common units are mol dm⁻³ s⁻¹.
反应速率：反应物或产物浓度随时间的变化率；常用单位 mol dm⁻³ s⁻¹。
Activation energy (Eₐ): The minimum energy that colliding particles must possess for a reaction to occur.
活化能 (Eₐ)：碰撞粒子必须具备的最低能量，反应才能发生。
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of a reaction without being consumed, by providing an alternative reaction pathway with lower activation energy.
催化剂：通过提供活化能较低的替代反应路径来提高反应速率，自身在反应中不被消耗的物质。
Homogeneous catalyst: A catalyst that exists in the same phase (usually liquid or gas) as the reactants.
均相催化剂：与反应物处于同一相态（通常为液相或气相）的催化剂。
Heterogeneous catalyst: A catalyst that exists in a different phase from the reactants (e.g. solid catalyst with gaseous reactants).
多相催化剂：与反应物处于不同相态的催化剂（如固体催化剂与气体反应物）。
Collision theory: For a reaction to occur, particles must collide with sufficient kinetic energy (≥ Eₐ) and with the correct orientation.
碰撞理论：反应发生需要粒子碰撞具有足够的动能（≥ Eₐ）且取向正确。
Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution: A graph showing the distribution of kinetic energies among gas particles at a given temperature; the area under the curve to the right of Eₐ represents the fraction of particles with enough energy to react.
麦克斯韦–玻尔兹曼分布：描述给定温度下气体粒子动能分布的曲线；Eₐ 右侧的曲线下面积代表具有足够反应能量的粒子比例。
Rate equation: An expression linking rate of reaction to the concentrations of reactants raised to certain powers, e.g. rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ. The order with respect to A is m.
速率方程：将反应速率与反应物浓度（带幂次）联系起来的表达式，如 rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ。对 A 为 m 级。
5. Chemical Equilibria | 化学平衡
Dynamic equilibrium: The state in a reversible reaction where the rates of the forward and reverse reactions are equal, and the concentrations of reactants and products remain constant.
动态平衡：可逆反应中正逆反应速率相等、反应物和产物浓度保持恒定的状态。
Le Chatelier’s principle: If a system at equilibrium is subjected to a change in concentration, pressure or temperature, the position of equilibrium shifts to partially counteract the change.
勒夏特列原理：若平衡系统受到浓度、压力或温度改变，平衡位置将会移动以部分抵消该改变。
Equilibrium constant (Kc): For a reaction aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD, Kc = [C]ᶜ [D]ᵈ / [A]ᵃ [B]ᵇ, with concentrations at equilibrium. It is affected only by temperature.
平衡常数 (Kc)：对于反应 aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD，Kc = [C]ᶜ [D]ᵈ / [A]ᵃ [B]ᵇ，各浓度为平衡浓度。其数值仅受温度影响。
Homogeneous equilibrium: An equilibrium in which all reactants and products are in the same phase.
均相平衡：所有反应物和产物处于同一相态的平衡。
Heterogeneous equilibrium: An equilibrium involving species in more than one phase; pure solids and pure liquids do not appear in the expression for Kc.
多相平衡：涉及多于一种相态的平衡；纯固体和纯液体不出现在 Kc 的表达式中。
Yield: The amount of desired product obtained, often expressed as a percentage of the theoretical maximum.
产率：实际获得的目标产物量，通常表示为理论最大产量的百分比。
6. Acids, Bases and pH | 酸、碱与 pH
Bronsted–Lowry acid: A proton (H⁺) donor.
布朗斯特–劳里酸：质子 (H⁺) 的给予体。
Bronsted–Lowry base: A proton (H⁺) acceptor.
布朗斯特–劳里碱：质子 (H⁺) 的接受体。
Conjugate acid–base pair: Two species that differ by one proton, e.g. NH₄⁺ (acid) and NH₃ (base).
共轭酸碱对：相差一个质子的两种物质，如 NH₄⁺ (酸) 和 NH₃ (碱)。
Strong acid: An acid that fully dissociates in aqueous solution, releasing all its protons (e.g. HCl).
强酸：在水溶液中完全电离，释放所有质子的酸（如 HCl）。
Weak acid: An acid that partially dissociates in water, establishing an equilibrium (e.g. CH₃COOH).
弱酸：在水中部分电离，建立平衡的酸（如 CH₃COOH）。
pH: pH = −log₁₀[H⁺]; a measure of the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution.
pH：pH = −log₁₀[H⁺]；衡量溶液中氢离子浓度的尺度。
Acid dissociation constant (Kₐ): For HA ⇌ H⁺ + A⁻, Kₐ = [H⁺][A⁻] / [HA]; its magnitude indicates acid strength. pKₐ = −log₁₀Kₐ.
酸离解常数 (Kₐ)：对于 HA ⇌ H⁺ + A⁻，Kₐ = [H⁺][A⁻] / [HA]；其大小表示酸性强度。pKₐ = −log₁₀Kₐ。
Buffer solution: A solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of acid or base are added. It consists of a weak acid and its conjugate base, or a weak base and its conjugate acid.
缓冲溶液：加入少量酸或碱时能够抵抗 pH 变化的溶液。由弱酸及其共轭碱，或弱碱及其共轭酸组成。
7. Redox and Electrochemistry | 氧化还原与电化学
Oxidation (in terms of electrons): Loss of electrons by a species.
氧化 (电子定义)：某一物种失去电子。
Reduction: Gain of electrons by a species.
还原：某一物种得到电子。
Oxidation number: The charge an atom would have if all the bonds in the compound were ionic. Used to identify what has been oxidised or reduced.
氧化数：假设化合物中所有键均为离子键时原子所带的电荷。用于判断哪些物质被氧化或还原。
Redox reaction: A reaction in which both oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously.
氧化还原反应：氧化和还原同时发生的反应。
Oxidising agent (oxidant): A species that accepts electrons and is itself reduced.
氧化剂：接受电子、自身被还原的物质。
Reducing agent (reductant): A species that donates electrons and is itself oxidised.
还原剂：给出电子、自身被氧化的物质。
Standard electrode potential (E°): The voltage measured when a half‑cell is connected to the standard hydrogen electrode under standard conditions. It indicates the tendency of a species to be reduced.
标准电极电势 (E°)：在标准条件下，某半电池与标准氢电极连接时测得的电压。它反映了物种被还原的趋势。
Half‑cell: An electrode immersed in a solution of ions, connected via a salt bridge; oxidation or reduction occurs at the electrode surface.
半电池：电极浸入离子溶液中，通过盐桥连接；电极表面发生氧化或还原。
Fuel cell: A cell that converts chemical energy from a fuel (e.g. hydrogen) and oxygen directly into electrical energy, with water as the waste product.
燃料电池：将燃料（如氢气）和氧气的化学能直接转化为电能的电池，废产物是水。
8. Organic Chemistry Basics | 有机化学基础
Hydrocarbon: A compound containing only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
碳氢化合物：仅含碳和氢原子的化合物。
Saturated compound: A molecule that contains only single C–C bonds; no double or triple bonds.
饱和化合物：只含 C–C 单键、没有双键或三键的分子。
Unsaturated compound: A compound containing one or more multiple bonds – typically C=C double bonds or C≡C triple bonds.
不饱和化合物：含有一个或多个多重键（通常是 C=C 双键或 C≡C 三键）的化合物。
Homologous series: A family of organic compounds that share the same general formula, functional group and similar chemical properties, and show a gradual trend in physical properties.
同系物：具有相同通式、相同官能团和相似化学性质，且物理性质呈现渐变趋势的一系列有机化合物。
Functional group: An atom or group of atoms that gives a molecule its characteristic chemical reactivity (e.g. –OH in alcohols).
官能团：赋予分子特征化学性质的原子或原子团（如醇中的 –OH）。
Empirical formula: The simplest whole‑number ratio of atoms of each element in a compound.
实验式：化合物中各元素原子数的最简整数比。
Molecular formula: The actual number of atoms of each element in one molecule.
分子式：一个分子中每种元素的实际原子数。
Structural formula: Shows how atoms are arranged and bonded in a molecule, often using condensed or displayed forms.
结构式：表示分子中原子的排列和连接方式，常使用缩略式或显示式。
Isomerism: The phenomenon where two or more compounds have the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms.
同分异构现象：两个或多个化合物分子式相同但原子排列不同的现象。
9. Functional Groups and Reactions | 官能团与反应
Alkane: A saturated hydrocarbon with the general formula CnH2n+2; undergoes combustion and substitution reactions with halogens under UV light (free‑radical substitution).
烷烃：通式为 CnH2n+2 的饱和烃；能发生燃烧和紫外光照下与卤素的取代反应（自由基取代）。
Alkene: An unsaturated hydrocarbon containing a C=C double bond; typical reactions include electrophilic addition (e.g. with HBr, Br₂, H₂SO₄) and polymerisation.
烯烃：含 C=C 双键的不饱和烃；典型反应包括亲电加成（如与 HBr、Br₂、H₂SO₄）和聚合反应。
Alcohol: A compound with the hydroxyl functional group –OH; classified as primary, secondary or tertiary. Undergoes oxidation, dehydration and esterification.
醇：带有羟基 –OH 官能团的化合物；分为伯、仲、叔醇。可发生氧化、脱水和酯化反应。
Carboxylic acid: A compound containing the –COOH group; weak acids that react with alcohols to form esters and with bases to form carboxylate salts.
羧酸：含有 –COOH 基团的化合物；弱酸，能与醇反应生成酯，与碱反应生成羧酸盐。
Ester: Formed by the reaction of a carboxylic acid and an alcohol in the presence of an acid catalyst; characterised by the functional group –COO– and often have fruity smells.
酯：由羧酸和醇在酸催化下反应生成；特征官能团为 –COO–，常带有水果香味。
Addition polymerisation: The process whereby unsaturated monomers (e.g. alkenes) add together without loss of any small molecules to form a long‑chain polymer.
加成聚合：不饱和单体（如烯烃）加成在一起而不脱去小分子的过程，生成高分子长链。
Condensation polymerisation: Polymerisation that involves the joining of monomers with the elimination of a small molecule such as water or HCl (e.g. polyesters, polyamides).
缩合聚合：单体结合时脱去小分子（如水或 HCl）的聚合反应（如聚酯、聚酰胺）。
Chiral centre: A carbon atom bonded to four different groups; the molecule exists as two non‑superimposable mirror images (enantiomers).
手性中心：连接四个不同基团的碳原子；分子存在两种不可重叠的镜像异构体（对映异构体）。
10. Analytical Techniques | 分析技术
Mass spectrometry: A technique that ionises a sample and separates the resulting ions according to their mass‑to‑charge ratio (m/z). The molecular ion peak gives the relative molecular mass.
质谱法：将样品离子化，并按质荷比 (m/z) 分离离子的技术。分子离子峰给出相对分子质量。
Infrared (IR) spectroscopy: A technique that identifies functional groups by measuring the absorption of infrared radiation at characteristic frequencies; absorptions appear as troughs on the spectrum.
红外光谱：通过测量特征频率处红外辐射的吸收来鉴定官能团的技术；吸收在图谱上显示为倒峰。
Fingerprint region: The region of an IR spectrum below about 1500 cm⁻¹ that is unique to each compound and can be used to confirm identity by comparison with a reference.
指纹区：红外谱图中约 1500 cm⁻¹ 以下的区域，每个化合物都独一无二，可与标准图谱比对确认身份。
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy: C‑13 NMR tells us about the number of non‑equivalent carbon environments; proton (H‑1) NMR also reveals the number of hydrogen environments and spin‑spin splitting patterns.
核磁共振谱：碳‑13 NMR 告诉我们不等价碳环境的数目；质子 (H‑1) NMR 还能显示氢环境的数目及自旋‑自旋分裂模式。
Chemical shift (δ): The position of a signal on an NMR spectrum, measured in parts per million (ppm), providing information about the chemical environment of the nucleus.
化学位移 (δ)：NMR谱中信号的位置，以百万分之一 (ppm) 为单位，提供关于该原子核化学环境的信息。
Chromatography: A separation technique where components of a mixture are distributed between a stationary phase and a mobile phase. Thin‑layer
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