📚 SQA Psychology Experimental Skills: Practical Assessment Essentials for Year 10 | SQA十年级心理学：实验与实践考核核心要点
In Year 10 SQA Psychology, practical assessments and experimental tasks form a vital part of your learning. This article outlines the key concepts you must master, from designing an experiment to reporting findings, ensuring you are fully prepared for your in-class practicals and written test questions on research methodology.
在十年级SQA心理学课程中，实践考核和实验任务是学习的核心部分。本文将梳理你必须掌握的关键概念，从实验设计到报告结果，帮助你为课堂实践和研究方法相关的书面考题做好充分准备。
1. Understanding Variables (IV, DV, CV) | 了解变量（自变量、因变量、控制变量）
In any experiment, you must clearly identify the independent variable (IV) – the factor you deliberately change or manipulate.
在任何实验中，你必须清楚识别自变量（IV）——你故意改变或操纵的因素。
The dependent variable (DV) is what you measure to see the effect of the IV; it must be operationalised with precise units.
因变量（DV）是你为了观察自变量的影响而测量的指标；必须用精确的单位进行操作化定义。
Control variables (CVs) are all other factors that must be kept constant to prevent them from affecting the DV, ensuring a fair test.
控制变量（CVs）是所有其他必须保持恒定的因素，以防它们干扰因变量，从而确保公正的测试。
2. Formulating Hypotheses | 提出假设
An experimental hypothesis predicts the relationship between the IV and the DV. It can be directional (one-tailed), e.g. ‘Participants who sleep 8 hours will recall more words than those who sleep 4 hours.’
实验假设预测自变量和因变量之间的关系。它可以是方向性的（单尾），例如“睡8小时的参与者比睡4小时的参与者能回忆更多单词”。
A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis simply states that there will be a difference, without specifying the direction, e.g. ‘There will be a difference in word recall between participants who sleep 8 hours and those who sleep 4 hours.’
非方向性（双尾）假设仅说明会有差异，但不指明方向，例如“睡8小时与睡4小时的参与者在单词回忆上存在差异”。
Remember to include the conditions of the IV and a clear statement about the DV in your hypothesis.
记住在假设中要包含自变量的条件水平，并对因变量给出明确陈述。
3. Experimental Design Types | 实验设计类型
Independent groups design: different participants take part in each condition of the experiment. This avoids order effects but requires more participants and may introduce participant variables.
独立组设计：不同的参与者被分配到实验的各个条件中。这避免了顺序效应，但需要更多参与者，并可能引入参与者变量。
Repeated measures design: the same participants perform all conditions. This controls for participant variables and requires fewer participants, but order effects (fatigue, practice) can become a problem.
重复测量设计：同一组参与者完成所有条件。这控制了参与者变量，所需人数较少，但顺序效应（疲劳、练习效应）可能成为问题。
Matched pairs design: participants are paired based on key characteristics related to the DV, then split into different conditions. It combines strengths of both other designs but can be time-consuming and difficult to match perfectly.
配对组设计：参与者根据与因变量相关的重要特征被配对，然后分到不同条件。它结合了前两种设计的优势，但耗时且难以完全匹配。
| Design | Strength | Limitation |
|---|---|---|
| Independent Groups | No order effects | Participant variables |
| Repeated Measures | Controls participant variables | Order effects |
| Matched Pairs | Reduces participant variables and order effects | Difficult to match perfectly |
4. Sampling Methods | 抽样方法
Random sampling: every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected. This reduces bias but is often impractical.
随机抽样：目标人群中的每个成员都有同等被选中的机会。这减少了偏差，但往往不现实。
Opportunity sampling: you select people who are conveniently available, e.g. classmates. It is quick and easy but may produce an unrepresentative, biased sample.
机会抽样：选择方便可用的人，例如同班同学。这种方法快速简便，但可能产生不具代表性、有偏的样本。
Volunteer sampling: participants self-select by responding to an advert. This may attract a certain type of person (volunteer bias) and reduce generalisability.
志愿者抽样：参与者通过回应广告自我选择。这可能吸引特定类型的人（志愿者偏差），降低推广性。
5. Ethical Considerations | 伦理考量
All psychological research must follow ethical guidelines. Informed consent means participants should know the aims and procedures and agree to take part, though sometimes deception is necessary — in such cases a debrief must be provided afterwards.
所有心理学研究必须遵循伦理准则。知情同意意味着参与者应了解研究目的和程序并同意参与，尽管有时需要欺骗——这种情况下，事后必须提供事后解释（debrief）。
Participants have the right to withdraw at any time without penalty. Their data should remain confidential and, ideally, anonymous.
参与者有权随时退出且不受惩罚。他们的数据应保密，最好匿名。
Protection from harm is critical; you must avoid physical or psychological distress. Deception should be minimised and only used when justified by significant scientific value.
保护免受伤害至关重要；你必须避免身体或心理上的痛苦。欺骗应当尽量减少，只有在有重大科学价值时才可使用。
6. Standardised Procedures and Controls | 标准化程序与控制
Standardised procedures ensure that all participants experience the same instructions, materials, and timings. This increases reliability – another researcher should be able to replicate your experiment.
标准化程序确保所有参与者都经历相同的指导语、材料和计时节律。这提高了信度——其他研究者应当能够重复你的实验。
Random allocation of participants to conditions helps distribute uncontrolled variables evenly, reducing bias.
将参与者随机分配到不同条件有助于均匀分散未控制的变量，减少偏差。
Counterbalancing is used in repeated measures designs: half the participants do condition A then B, the other half do B then A. This balances out order effects.
平衡法用于重复测量设计：一半参与者先做条件A后做条件B，另一半先做B后做A。这平衡了顺序效应。
7. Data Collection and Measurement | 数据收集与测量
Data can be quantitative (numerical, e.g. test scores, reaction times in ms) or qualitative (non-numerical, e.g. descriptions, interview transcripts). SQA practicals usually focus on quantitative data.
数据可以是定量的（数值型，如测验分数、反应时间以毫秒计）或定性的（非数值型，如描述、访谈转录稿）。SQA实践考核通常侧重定量数据。
You must decide on the level of measurement: nominal (categories), ordinal (ranked order), or interval/ratio (equal intervals, true zero). Identify the correct level for your DV.
你必须确定测量尺度：命名量表（分类）、顺序量表（排序）或等距/等比量表（等间隔，有绝对零点）。确定你的因变量属于哪一层次。
Use a data collection table to record raw scores clearly, with labeled columns for each condition.
使用数据收集表清晰地记录原始分数，每个条件都要有标注清楚的列。
8. Descriptive Statistics and Graphs | 描述性统计与图表
Calculate the mean for each condition: add all scores and divide by the number of participants.
计算每个条件的平均值：将所有分数相加，再除以参与者人数。
Mean = Σx ÷ n
You may also be asked to find the median (middle score), mode (most frequent), and range (highest minus lowest).
你可能还需要找出中位数（中间分数）、众数（出现频率最高的分数）和极差（最高分减去最低分）。
Present your results visually using a bar chart (for discrete categories) or a simple table. Always label axes, include a title, and use equal spacing.
用条形图（适用于离散类别）或简单表格直观呈现结果。务必将坐标轴标注清楚，加上标题，并使用等距间隔。
9. Drawing Conclusions and Evaluating Limitations | 得出结论与评估局限性
Your conclusion must state whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected, based on the descriptive statistics. Do not claim proof; use language like ‘the results suggest…’
你的结论必须基于描述性统计数据说明假设是否得到支持或被拒绝。不要声称“证明”；应使用诸如“结果表明……”之类的语言。
Evaluate the experiment’s validity (did you test what you intended?) and reliability (would repeating give consistent results?). Identify confounding variables you could not control, and mention participant variables, experimenter effects, or demand characteristics.
评估实验的效度（你是否测量了想要测量的？）和信度（重复实验是否能得到一致的结果？）。指出你未能控制的混淆变量，并提及参与者变量、实验者效应或需求特征。
Suggest at least one specific improvement for future research, such as using a matched pairs design or increasing sample size.
为未来研究至少提出一条具体的改进建议，例如采用配对组设计或增加样本量。
10. Presenting a Practical Report | 撰写实践报告
Your report should include a clear title, aim (e.g. ‘To investigate the effect of X on Y’), hypothesis, and a description of the standardised procedures.
你的报告应包括清晰的标题、目的（如“调查X对Y的影响”）、假设以及对标准化程序的描述。
Briefly outline your sample (how many, method of selection) and ethical considerations addressed.
简要说明你的样本（人数、选择方法）以及所处理的伦理问题。
Present your raw data and descriptive statistics clearly. End with a conclusion and an evaluation that links back to the aim.
清晰地呈现原始数据和描述性统计。最后，给出结论和评估，并回扣到研究目的。
11. Counterbalancing and Order Effects in Detail | 详细解析平衡法与顺序效应
Order effects are extraneous variables that arise because participants do all conditions. Practice effects improve performance in later conditions, while fatigue effects worsen it.
顺序效应是由于参与者完成所有条件而产生的额外变量。练习效应会使后续条件下的表现提高，而疲劳效应则会导致表现下降。
Counterbalancing is the main remedy. In a complete counterbalancing design, all possible orders are used if the number of conditions is small; more commonly, ABBA reversal is used for two conditions.
平衡法是主要补救措施。在完全平衡设计中，如果条件数量少，则使用所有可能的顺序；更常见的是对两个条件采用ABBA反转。
If you fail to counterbalance, order effects act as a confounding variable, lowering internal validity. You must explain this in your evaluation.
如果你未能平衡顺序，顺序效应就会成为混淆变量，降低内部效度。在评估中必须对此加以说明。
12. The Role of Pilot Studies and Practice Runs | 试点研究与实践演练的作用
Before your main experiment, it is wise to run a small-scale pilot study. This helps you check that your instructions are clear, the timing works, and your materials measure what you intend.
在正式实验之前，进行小规模的试点研究是明智的。这有助于你检查指导语是否清晰、计时是否合适，以及材料是否测量了你想要测量的事物。
A pilot also lets you practise the role of the experimenter so that your delivery is consistent during the real practical assessment.
试点研究还能让你练习实验者的角色，从而在正式实践考核中做到表达一致。
Use feedback from a pilot to make final adjustments to your standardised procedures — this strengthens reliability and validity.
利用试点的反馈对标准化程序进行最后调整——这能增强信度和效度。
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