📚 CAIE Year 11 Philosophy: Key Terms Quick Memorisation Guide | CAIE 11 年级哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the terminology of CAIE IGCSE/O-Level Philosophy is half the battle. This guide covers the most frequently examined terms across epistemology, ethics, philosophy of mind, and political thought. Each term is paired with a clear definition, an exam tip, and a memory hook to help you retain it under pressure.
掌握 CAIE IGCSE/O-Level 哲学的术语是成功的一半。本指南涵盖了认识论、伦理学、心灵哲学和政治思想中最常考的术语。每个术语都配有清晰的定义、考试提示和记忆技巧，帮助你在考试压力下牢牢记住它们。
1. Epistemology Foundations | 认识论基础
Knowledge as Justified True Belief has three conditions: belief, truth, and justification. A proposition must be believed, be true, and be supported by adequate evidence or reasoning. In exam essays, always separate these three conditions instead of lumping them together.
作为“经过辩护的真信念”的知识有三个条件：信念、真实和辩护。一个命题必须被相信、为真，并且有充分的证据或推理支持。在考试论文中，务必将这三个条件分开讨论，不要混为一谈。
The term ‘a priori’ refers to knowledge gained independently of sensory experience, such as mathematical truths (2 + 2 = 4). By contrast, ‘a posteriori’ knowledge depends on experience, like knowing that water boils at 100°C. Mnemonic: ‘a priori’ sounds like ‘prior’ to experience; ‘a posteriori’ sounds like ‘post’ experience.
“先天”一词指不依赖感官经验获得的知识，例如数学真理（2 + 2 = 4）。相反，“后天”知识依赖于经验，比如知道水在 100°C 沸腾。记忆法：“a priori”听起来像“在经验之前”；“a posteriori”听起来像“在经验之后”。
Scepticism challenges the possibility of knowledge. Global scepticism denies any knowledge at all, while local scepticism targets specific domains like the external world or other minds. Use Descartes’ evil demon as a classic global sceptical scenario.
怀疑论挑战知识的可能性。全局怀疑论否认一切知识，局部怀疑论则针对特定领域，如外部世界或他人的心灵。用笛卡尔的恶魔作为经典的全局怀疑情景。
2. Rationalism vs Empiricism | 理性主义与经验主义
Rationalists argue that reason is the primary source of knowledge, with innate ideas already present in the mind from birth. Plato’s theory of Forms and Descartes’ trademark argument are core rationalist examples. Remember the phrase ‘Rationalists believe in Reason as the Root’.
理性主义者认为理性是知识的主要来源，先天观念是与生俱来存在于头脑中的。柏拉图的形式论和笛卡尔的印记论证是理性主义的核心例子。记住这句话：“Rationalists believe in Reason as the Root”。
Empiricists claim all knowledge derives from sense experience. The mind at birth is a ‘tabula rasa’ (blank slate). Locke’s distinction between primary qualities (size, shape) and secondary qualities (colour, taste) is a must-know. Link empiricism to ‘experience through the five senses’.
经验主义者声称所有知识都来自感官经验。头脑在出生时是一块“白板”。洛克对主性质（大小、形状）和次性质（颜色、味道）的区分是必考点。将经验主义与“通过五种感官的经验”联系起来记忆。
3. Knowledge Definitions | 知识的定义
The tripartite definition of knowledge is often written as K = JTB. However, Gettier cases show that justified true belief can still fall short of knowledge. A standard Gettier example: a broken clock that happens to show the right time. The belief is justified and true, but we would not call it knowledge.
知识的三元定义常写为 K = JTB。然而，盖梯尔案例表明，经过辩护的真信念仍可能不是知识。一个标准的盖梯尔例子：一个坏了但碰巧显示正确时间的钟。该信念既是辩护的又是真的，但我们不会称之为知识。
Reliabilism replaces justification with a belief produced by a reliable cognitive process. A reliable process is one that tends to yield true beliefs (e.g., normal vision under good light). This theory avoids Gettier problems but struggles to define what counts as reliable.
可靠主义用由可靠的认知过程产生的信念来取代辩护条件。可靠的过程是指倾向于产生真信念的过程（例如，良好光线下的正常视觉）。这一理论避免了盖梯尔问题，但难以界定什么是可靠的。
4. Ethical Language and Metaethics | 伦理语言与元伦理学
Cognitivism holds that moral statements express beliefs that can be true or false. ‘Murder is wrong’ is a factual claim, just like ‘water is wet’. Non-cognitivism says moral statements do not state facts but express emotions or commands. Emotivism (A. J. Ayer) says ‘Murder is wrong’ means ‘Boo to murder!’.
认知主义认为道德陈述表达了可以为真或假的信念。“谋杀是错误的”是一个事实主张，就像“水是湿的”一样。非认知主义则说，道德陈述并不陈述事实，而是表达情感或命令。情感主义（艾耶尔）说，“谋杀是错误的”意思是“谋杀，呸！”。
Ethical naturalism maintains that moral properties are natural properties, reducible to scientific or observable facts (e.g., ‘good’ means ‘maximising pleasure’). Ethical non-naturalism (G. E. Moore) insists ‘good’ is a simple, unanalysable, non-natural property. Moore’s open-question argument is a key tool here.
伦理自然主义主张道德属性就是自然属性，可以还原为科学的或可观察的事实（例如，“善”意味着“最大化的快乐”）。伦理非自然主义（摩尔）坚持认为“善”是一个简单的、不可分析的、非自然的属性。摩尔的开放问题论证是这里的关键工具。
5. Normative Ethical Theories | 规范伦理理论
Utilitarianism judges actions by their consequences: the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Bentham’s hedonic calculus measures pleasure by intensity, duration, certainty, and extent. Mill’s higher and lower pleasures upgrade the theory to address ‘swine objection’. Think of ‘utility’ as a happiness scorecard.
功利主义通过后果来评判行为：最大多数人的最大幸福。边沁的快乐计算法通过强度、持续时间、确定性、范围等来衡量快乐。密尔的高级与低级快乐升级了该理论，以应对“猪的异议”。把“效用”想象成一张幸福记分卡。
Deontology (Kant) argues that some acts are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of consequences. The categorical imperative commands: act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. The second formulation treats humanity never merely as a means but always as an end. Memorise the phrase ‘duty for duty’s sake’.
义务论（康德）主张，某些行为本身就对或错，不论后果如何。定言令式命令道：只依据那个你同时愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。第二个表述是：永远不要仅仅把人当作手段，而总要当作目的本身。牢记“为义务而义务”这句话。
Virtue ethics shifts focus from acts to the agent’s character. Aristotle’s doctrine of the mean locates virtue between two vices: courage lies between cowardice and rashness. Eudaimonia (flourishing) is the ultimate goal. Use the acronym VICE: Virtue Is Character Excellence.
美德伦理学将焦点从行为转移到行为者的品格。亚里士多德的中庸之道将美德置于两个恶之间：勇气介于怯懦和鲁莽之间。eudaimonia（繁盛）是最终目标。用首字母缩写 VICE 帮助记忆：Virtue Is Character Excellence。
6. Free Will vs Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Hard determinism claims that all events are causally determined, so free will is an illusion. Theological determinism (predestination) and scientific determinism (Laplace’s demon) both deny genuine choice. Compatibilism (soft determinism) redefines free will as acting according to one’s desires without external coercion. Hume is its classical defender.
强决定论声称所有事件都是因果决定的，因此自由意志是一种幻觉。神学决定论（预定论）和科学决定论（拉普拉斯妖）都否认真正的选择。相容论（弱决定论）将自由意志重新定义为根据自身欲望行动而不受外部强制。休谟是其经典的辩护者。
Libertarianism (in metaphysics, not politics) asserts that we have contra-causal free will. This often requires a non-physical mind or agent causation. The experience of deliberation is taken as direct evidence for free will. Remember: Libertarianism Loves Liberated choices.
自由意志论（在形而上学而非政治中）断言我们具有反因果的自由意志。这通常需要一个非物理的心灵或行为者因果。深思熟虑的体验被视为自由意志的直接证据。记住：Libertarianism Loves Liberated choices。
7. Mind-Body Dualism | 心灵哲学中的二元论
Substance dualism (Descartes) holds that mind and body are two distinct substances: res cogitans (thinking substance) and res extensa (extended substance). The interaction problem asks how an immaterial mind can move a material body. Descartes’ pineal gland proposal is widely criticised.
实体二元论（笛卡尔）认为心灵和身体是两种不同的实体：思之实体和广延实体。交互问题问的是，非物质的心灵如何移动物质的身体。笛卡尔提出的松果腺解释受到广泛批评。
Property dualism maintains the world is made of one kind of substance (physical) but that mental properties are non-physical and irreducible. The ‘what it is like’ to have an experience (qualia) is central. The knowledge argument (Mary the colour scientist) illustrates property dualism.
属性二元论主张世界只由一种实体（物理实体）构成，但心理属性是非物理且不可还原的。拥有某种经验的“感觉如何”（感受质）是核心。知识论证（色彩科学家玛丽）阐述了属性二元论。
8. Personal Identity | 人格同一性
Psychological continuity theories (Locke, Parfit) claim personal identity is a matter of overlapping chains of psychological connections, especially memory. The prince and the cobbler thought experiment shows that identity goes where consciousness goes. Criticisms include false memories and circularity.
心理连续性理论（洛克、帕菲特）声称人格同一性在于重叠的心理联系链，尤其是记忆。王子和鞋匠的思想实验显示，同一性跟随意识转移。批评包括虚假记忆和循环论证。
Biological approaches (animalism) say we remain the same person as long as we are the same living human animal. The brain transplant case challenges this: if your brain goes into another body, where does the person go? This directly tests which criterion candidates find most intuitive.
生物学进路（动物主义）说只要我们是同一个活着的人类动物，我们就保持同一个人。大脑移植案例对此提出挑战：如果你的大脑进入另一个身体，那个人去了哪里？这直接考验哪种标准最符合直觉。
9. God and Religious Language | 上帝与宗教语言
The design argument (teleological argument) claims that the complexity and order of the universe imply an intelligent designer. Paley’s watch analogy is the classic formulation. Hume’s criticisms (e.g., the world resembles a vegetable more than a machine) are essential evaluation points.
设计论证（目的论论证）声称，宇宙的复杂性和秩序暗示着一位智慧的设计者。佩利的钟表类比是经典表述。休谟的批评（例如，世界更像一株蔬菜而非一台机器）是关键的评估点。
The problem of evil: an omnipotent, omnibenevolent God would want and be able to eliminate evil. Since evil exists, either God lacks one of these attributes or does not exist. The free-will defence and the soul-making theodicy are standard responses. Link evil to Evidence that Visibly Illuminates Lack of benevolence.
恶的问题：一位全能全善的上帝会愿意并且能够消除恶。既然恶存在，要么上帝缺乏其中某个属性，要么不存在。自由意志辩护和灵魂塑造神正论是标准回应。用恶联想到 Evidence that Visibly Illuminates Lack of benevolence。
10. Political Freedom and Authority | 政治自由与权威
Negative freedom (Berlin) is freedom from interference by others. No one is stopping you from acting on your desires. Positive freedom is the capacity to be one’s own master, to act on one’s higher, rational self. Think negative = no obstacles; positive = self-mastery.
消极自由（伯林）是免于他人干涉的自由。没有人阻止你按自己的欲望行动。积极自由是成为自己主人的能力，能够按照更高、理性的自我行动。记住：消极 = 无障碍；积极 = 自我掌控。
The social contract explains why citizens obey the state: they have hypothetically consented to give up some freedoms for security and order. Hobbes argued for an absolute sovereign to escape the ‘state of nature’, which he described as ‘solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short’. Locke’s contract allows citizens to revolt if natural rights are violated.
社会契约论解释了公民为何服从国家：他们假设性地同意放弃某些自由以换取安全和秩序。霍布斯主张建立绝对的主权者以脱离“自然状态”，他将自然状态描述为“孤独、贫困、卑污、残忍且短寿”。洛克的契约允许公民在自然权利受侵犯时起义。
11. Examination Tips for Terminology | 术语考试技巧
When defining a term, always give a precise, one-sentence formal definition first, then elaborate. Use phrases like ‘by this, the philosopher means…’ and ‘to illustrate…’. Avoid circular definitions: never define ‘knowledge’ as ‘knowing something’. Use synonyms carefully.
在定义术语时，总是先给出一个精确的一句式正式定义，然后再详细阐述。使用诸如“哲学家借此意指……”和“举例来说……”的表述。避免循环定义：永远不要把“知识”定义为“知道某事”。谨慎使用同义词。
For high-mark evaluation questions, contrast the term with its opposite or a rival concept. For instance, after explaining a priori, immediately contrast it with a posteriori knowledge. This demonstrates synoptic understanding and impresses examiners. Create a glossary for each topic with paired opposites.
对于高分评估题，将该术语与其对立面或竞争概念进行对比。例如，解释完先天知识后，立刻与后天知识进行对比。这展现了综合理解，能给考官留下深刻印象。为每个主题创建一个包含成对对立概念的术语表。
12. Quick-Fire Memory Aids | 快速记忆辅助
Create acronyms for tripartite groupings: JTB (Justified True Belief), UAB (Utilitarianism: Act, Bentham), RIE (Rationalism: Innate, Empiricism). For ethical theories, use a simple table to compare their focus: consequence vs duty vs character. Visualise the ‘sceptical brain in a vat’ for global scepticism.
为三元组创建首字母缩写：JTB（Justified True Belief）、UAB（Utilitarianism: Act, Bentham）、RIE（Rationalism: Innate, Empiricism）。对于伦理理论，用一个简单的表格比较它们的焦点：后果 vs 义务 vs 品格。对于全局怀疑论，想象“缸中之脑”的画面。
A simple mind map can link all core terms under four branches: epistemology, ethics, mind, and politics. At the centre, write ‘CAIE Philosophy Core Vocabulary’. Draw branches outward and place terms with one-sentence definitions. Review this map for three minutes before your exam.
一个简单的思维导图可以将所有核心术语归为四个分支：认识论、伦理学、心灵和政治。在中心写上“CAIE 哲学核心词汇”。向外画出分支，并放置带有一句定义的术语。考前花三分钟回顾这张导图。
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