📚 Year 12 SQA Computing: Key Vocabulary & Terms Quick-Reference Guide | SQA 计算机词汇术语速记指南
Mastering computing vocabulary is essential for success in the SQA Higher Computing Science course. This quick-reference guide consolidates the key terms you need to memorise for exam hall performance, covering software development, computer systems, databases, and web technologies. Each term is explained clearly with its Chinese translation to support bilingual learning and recall.
掌握计算机词汇对于 SQA 高阶计算机科学课程的成功至关重要。本速记指南整合了你在考场上需要记住的关键术语，涵盖软件开发、计算机系统、数据库和Web技术。每个术语均有清晰的英文解释和中文翻译，以支持双语学习和快速回忆。
1. Software Development & Programming Fundamentals | 软件开发与编程基础
Variable (变量): A variable is a named storage location in memory that holds a value which can change during program execution. In languages like Python or Java, variables must be declared with a data type, which determines the kind of data they can store (e.g., integer, string, boolean).
变量是内存中一个命名的存储位置，用于保存程序执行期间可以改变的值。在 Python 或 Java 等语言中，变量必须用数据类型声明，数据类型决定了它们可以存储的数据种类（例如整数、字符串、布尔值）。
Data Type (数据类型): The data type defines the set of values that a variable can hold and the operations that can be performed on it. Common primitive types include integer, real/float, character, and Boolean; composite types such as strings, arrays, and records are built from these.
数据类型定义了一个变量可以持有的值集以及可对其执行的操作。常见的原始类型包括整数、实数/浮点数、字符和布尔值；字符串、数组和记录等复合类型基于这些原始类型构建。
Algorithm (算法): An algorithm is a step-by-step procedure or set of rules designed to solve a specific problem or perform a computation. It must be unambiguous, finite, and effective, and can be expressed using pseudocode, flowcharts, or structured English.
算法是为解决特定问题或执行计算而设计的分步过程或规则集。它必须无歧义、有限且有效，可以用伪代码、流程图或结构化英语表示。
Pseudocode (伪代码): Pseudocode is a plain-language description of an algorithm that uses a mixture of natural language and programming-like constructs without the strict syntax of a real programming language. It is used to plan program logic before coding.
伪代码是使用自然语言和类似编程结构的混合方式对算法的通俗描述，没有真实编程语言的严格语法。它用于在编码前规划程序逻辑。
Compiler (编译器) vs Interpreter (解释器): A compiler translates the entire source code into machine code (object code) before execution, producing a standalone executable. An interpreter translates and executes source code line by line at runtime, with no separate executable file.
编译器在执行前将整个源代码翻译为机器码（目标代码），生成独立的可执行文件。解释器在运行时逐行翻译并执行源代码，不产生单独的可执行文件。
Debugging (调试): Debugging is the process of finding and resolving defects or errors (bugs) in a computer program. Techniques include dry running, trace tables, breakpoints, and variable watches to step through code and inspect state.
调试是查找并解决计算机程序中的缺陷或错误的过程。技术包括手动走查、跟踪表、断点和变量监视，以单步执行代码并检查状态。
2. Control Structures & Logic | 控制结构与逻辑
Sequence (顺序): Sequence is the simplest control structure where statements are executed one after another in the order they appear. It is the default flow in most programming languages unless altered by selection or iteration.
顺序是最简单的控制结构，语句按照出现的顺序依次执行。它是大多数编程语言的默认流程，除非被选择或迭代改变。
Selection (选择): Selection allows the program to make decisions based on conditions. Common constructs include if, if-else, and switch/case statements, which execute different code blocks depending on Boolean expressions.
选择让程序能够基于条件做出决策。常见结构包括 if、if-else 和 switch/case 语句，它们根据布尔表达式执行不同的代码块。
Iteration (迭代): Iteration repeats a block of code multiple times. Definite iteration (e.g., for loop with known count) and indefinite iteration (e.g., while loop until condition is met) are fundamental for handling repetitive tasks.
迭代是多次重复执行一个代码块。确定迭代（例如已知次数的 for 循环）和不确定迭代（例如直到条件满足的 while 循环）是处理重复任务的基础。
Boolean Expression (布尔表达式): A Boolean expression evaluates to either TRUE or FALSE. It is built using relational operators (>, <, =, ≠, ≥, ≤) and logical operators (AND, OR, NOT) and is used to control selection and iteration.
布尔表达式求值为 TRUE（真）或 FALSE（假）。它使用关系运算符（>、<、=、≠、≥、≤）和逻辑运算符（AND、OR、NOT）构建，并用于控制选择和迭代。
Conditional Statement (条件语句): A conditional statement executes a particular block of code only if a specified condition is met. In most languages, the if keyword is used, often combined with else and elif.
条件语句仅在满足指定条件时执行特定的代码块。在大多数语言中，使用 if 关键字，通常与 else 和 elif 结合使用。
3. Data Structures & Records | 数据结构与记录
Array (数组): An array is a data structure that stores a fixed-size sequential collection of elements of the same type. Each element is accessed by an index, typically starting at 0. Arrays can be one-dimensional (list) or multi-dimensional (table/matrix).
数组是一种数据结构，存储固定大小的、相同类型的元素的顺序集合。每个元素通过索引访问，索引通常从 0 开始。数组可以是一维（列表）或多维（表格/矩阵）。
1D Array (一维数组): A one-dimensional array is a simple list of values. It can be traversed using a loop and is used to store sequences such as test scores or names.
一维数组是一个简单的值列表。它可以用循环遍历，用于存储测验分数或姓名等序列。
2D Array (二维数组): A two-dimensional array is arranged in rows and columns, resembling a table or grid. It requires two indices (row, column) to access elements and is useful for representing board games, spreadsheets, or image pixel data.
二维数组按行和列排列，类似于表格或网格。它需要两个索引（行、列）来访问元素，适合表示棋盘游戏、电子表格或图像像素数据。
Record (记录): A record is a composite data structure that groups related fields of possibly different data types under a single name. For example, a student record might contain fields for name (string), age (integer), and grade (character).
记录是一种复合数据结构，将可能为不同数据类型的相关字段分组在一个名称下。例如，一个学生记录可能包含名字（字符串）、年龄（整数）和成绩（字符）等字段。
String Manipulation (字符串操作): Common string operations include concatenation (joining strings), substring extraction, length determination, and character search. In pseudocode, functions like len(), left(), right(), and mid() are used.
常见的字符串操作包括连接、提取子串、确定长度和字符搜索。在伪代码中，使用 len()、left()、right() 和 mid() 等函数。
4. Software Development Process | 软件开发过程
Analysis (分析): The analysis stage involves understanding the problem fully by gathering requirements from stakeholders, identifying inputs, processes, outputs (IPO), and defining the scope. A clear specification is produced to guide design.
分析阶段涉及通过从利益相关者那里收集需求、识别输入、处理、输出（IPO）并定义范围，来全面理解问题。会产生一个清晰的规格说明来指导设计。
Design (设计): During design, the structure of the solution is planned using tools like structure diagrams, flowcharts, pseudocode, and wireframes for user interfaces. The design should consider modularity, data flow, and the human-computer interface (HCI).
在设计阶段，使用结构图、流程图、伪代码和用户界面线框图等工具规划解决方案的结构。设计应考虑模块化、数据流和人机界面。
Implementation (实现): Implementation is the coding phase where the design is translated into a programming language, producing source code. Developers follow coding standards, include internal commentary, and build the software module by module.
实现是将设计翻译为编程语言、产生源代码的编码阶段。开发者遵循编码标准、包含内部注释，并逐模块构建软件。
Testing (测试): Testing verifies that the program works correctly and meets requirements. It includes normal, boundary, and exceptional test data. Systematic testing is documented in a test table with expected and actual outcomes.
测试验证程序正确工作并满足需求。它包括正常、边界和异常测试数据。系统测试记录在测试表中，包含预期结果和实际结果。
Evaluation (评估): Evaluation judges the final software against the original specification. It assesses fitness for purpose, efficiency, robustness, and readability. Any limitations and improvements are identified for future versions.
评估根据原始规格说明评价最终软件。它评估适用性、效率、健壮性和可读性。识别任何限制和改进之处，用于未来版本。
Agile (敏捷) vs Waterfall (瀑布): The waterfall model is a linear sequential approach with distinct stages; it is difficult to return to an earlier phase. Agile development is iterative and incremental, with repeated cycles (sprints) and frequent client feedback, allowing for changing requirements.
瀑布模型是一种具有不同阶段的线性顺序方法；很难返回到早期阶段。敏捷开发是迭代和增量的，具有反复的周期（冲刺）和频繁的客户反馈，允许需求变更。
5. Computer Architecture & Data Representation | 计算机体系结构与数据表示
Central Processing Unit (CPU) (中央处理器): The CPU is the brain of the computer that executes program instructions. It consists of the Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), and registers, connected via internal buses.
中央处理器是计算机的大脑，执行程序指令。它由控制单元、算术逻辑单元和寄存器组成，通过内部总线连接。
Fetch-Execute Cycle (取指-执行周期): The fundamental operational cycle of the CPU: FETCH instruction from memory, DECODE the instruction, and EXECUTE the operation. The program counter (PC) and instruction register (IR) manage this cycle.
CPU 的基本操作周期：从内存取指令、译码指令、执行操作。程序计数器和指令寄存器管理这个周期。
RAM (随机存取存储器) vs ROM (只读存储器): RAM is volatile, working memory used to hold data and programs currently in use; it loses content when power is off. ROM is non-volatile, containing permanent startup instructions like the BIOS/firmware.
RAM 是易失性的工作内存，用于存放当前正在使用的数据和程序；断电时丢失内容。ROM 是非易失性的，包含永久性的启动指令，如 BIOS/固件。
Binary (二进制): All data in a computer is represented as binary digits (bits) — 0s and 1s. Text, images, sound, and numbers are encoded using binary patterns. Groups of 8 bits form a byte.
计算机中的所有数据都表示为二进制数字（位）——0 和 1。文本、图像、声音和数字使用二进制模式编码。8 位组成一个字节。
Hexadecimal (十六进制): Base-16 number system using digits 0-9 and letters A-F. It is a compact way to represent binary, as each hex digit corresponds to 4 bits, commonly used for colour codes and memory addresses.
使用数字 0-9 和字母 A-F 的十六进制记数系统。它是表示二进制的紧凑方式，每个十六进制数字对应 4 个二进制位，常用于颜色编码和内存地址。
Floating-Point Representation (浮点表示): Real numbers are stored using a mantissa and an exponent, similar to scientific notation. This allows a wide range of values at the cost of some precision; the number of bits allocated to mantissa and exponent affects accuracy and range.
实数使用尾数和指数存储，类似于科学记数法。这允许以牺牲一些精度为代价表示宽范围的值；分配给尾数和指数的位数影响准确度和范围。
Unicode (统一码): Unicode is a character encoding standard that assigns a unique code point to every character of every written language, ensuring consistency across platforms. It extends ASCII to support global scripts and emoji.
Unicode 是一种字符编码标准，为每种书面语言的每个字符分配唯一的码点，确保跨平台的一致性。它扩展了 ASCII，支持全球文字和表情符号。
6. Networking & Communication | 网络与通信
LAN (局域网) vs WAN (广域网): A Local Area Network connects computers in a small geographical area like a school or office using ethernet or Wi-Fi. A Wide Area Network spans cities or countries, often using leased telecommunication lines; the Internet is the largest WAN.
局域网连接小地理区域（如学校或办公室）内的计算机，使用以太网或 Wi-Fi。广域网跨越城市或国家，通常使用租用的电信线路；互联网是最大的广域网。
Protocol (协议): A protocol is a set of rules governing how data is transmitted and received over a network. Common protocols include TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) for reliable delivery, HTTP for web, and FTP for file transfer.
协议是管理数据如何在网络上传输和接收的一组规则。常见协议包括用于可靠传输的 TCP/IP（传输控制协议/互联网协议）、用于Web的 HTTP 和用于文件传输的 FTP。
TCP/IP (传输控制协议/互联网协议): TCP ensures reliable, ordered, and error-checked delivery of data streams by establishing connections and retransmitting lost packets. IP handles addressing and routing packets across networks to their destination.
TCP 通过建立连接和重传丢失的数据包，确保数据流的可靠、有序和错误检查传输。IP 处理数据包跨网络的寻址和路由到目的地。
Client-Server (客户端-服务器) vs Peer-to-Peer (对等网络): In client-server, central servers provide resources and services to multiple client devices; management is centralised. In peer-to-peer, each node acts as both client and server, sharing resources directly; this is more scalable but less secure without central control.
在客户端-服务器模型中，中央服务器向多个客户端设备提供资源和服务；管理集中。在对等网络中，每个节点同时充当客户端和服务器，直接共享资源；更易扩展，但没有中央控制则安全性较低。
DNS (域名系统): The Domain Name System translates human-friendly domain names (e.g., http://www.example.com) into IP addresses needed by computers to locate network resources. It acts like the phone book of the Internet.
域名系统将人类友好的域名（如 http://www.example.com）翻译为计算机定位网络资源所需的 IP 地址。它就像互联网的电话簿。
URL (统一资源定位符) & HTTP/HTTPS: A URL is a web address specifying the location of a resource and the protocol to access it. HTTP transmits data in plain text, while HTTPS encrypts data using SSL/TLS for security.
URL 是指定资源位置和访问该资源所用协议的网页地址。HTTP 以明文传输数据，而 HTTPS 使用 SSL/TLS 加密数据以确保安全。
7. Cybersecurity & Legislation | 网络安全与法规
Encryption (加密): Encryption transforms plaintext into ciphertext using an algorithm and a key, protecting data confidentiality during transmission or storage. Symmetric encryption uses the same key for both encryption and decryption; asymmetric uses a public/private key pair.
加密使用算法和密钥将明文转换为密文，保护传输或存储期间的数据机密性。对称加密使用相同的密钥进行加密和解密；非对称加密使用公钥/私钥对。
Firewall (防火墙): A firewall monitors and controls incoming and outgoing network traffic based on predefined security rules. It acts as a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks, blocking unauthorised access.
防火墙基于预定义的安全规则监控和控制进出网络流量。它作为可信内部网络与不可信外部网络之间的屏障，阻止未授权访问。
Malware (恶意软件): Malware is malicious software designed to damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorised access to computer systems. Types include viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware, and spyware. Antivirus software uses signature-based and heuristic detection.
恶意软件是旨在破坏、中断或未经授权访问计算机系统的恶意软件。类型包括病毒、蠕虫、木马、勒索软件和间谍软件。杀毒软件使用基于签名和启发式的检测。
Phishing (网络钓鱼): Phishing is a social engineering attack where fraudulent emails or messages trick users into revealing sensitive information like passwords or bank details, often by impersonating legitimate organisations.
网络钓鱼是一种社会工程攻击，欺诈性的电子邮件或消息诱骗用户泄露密码或银行详情等敏感信息，通常冒充合法机构。
Computer Misuse Act (计算机滥用法) & Data Protection Act (数据保护法): The UK Computer Misuse Act criminalises unauthorised access, modification, and the creation of malware. The Data Protection Act (and GDPR) regulates the collection, storage, and processing of personal data, giving individuals rights over their information.
英国的《计算机滥用法》将未经授权的访问、修改和创建恶意软件定为犯罪。《数据保护法》（及GDPR）管理个人数据的收集、存储和处理，赋予个人对其信息的权利。
8. Database Design & SQL | 数据库设计与SQL
Entity (实体) & Attribute (属性): In relational databases, an entity is a real-world object (e.g., Student, Course) represented as a table. Attributes are the properties or characteristics of an entity, stored as table columns (e.g., StudentID, Name, DateOfBirth).
在关系数据库中，实体是表示为表的现实世界对象（例如学生、课程）。属性是实体的性质或特征，存储为表的列（例如学号、姓名、出生日期）。
Primary Key (主键) & Foreign Key (外键): A primary key is a unique identifier for each record in a table; no two rows can have the same primary key value. A foreign key is a column in one table that references the primary key of another table, creating a link between them.
主键是表中每条记录的唯一标识符；两行不能具有相同的主键值。外键是一个表中引用另一个表主键的列，在两者之间创建链接。
Normalisation (规范化): Normalisation is the process of organising data to minimise redundancy and avoid update anomalies by splitting tables and defining relationships. First normal form (1NF) eliminates repeating groups; 2NF removes partial dependencies; 3NF removes transitive dependencies.
规范化是通过拆分表和定义关系来组织数据的过程，以尽量减少冗余并避免更新异常。第一范式消除重复组；第二范式移除部分依赖；第三范式移除传递依赖。
SQL Queries (SQL 查询): Structured Query Language is used to interact with relational databases. A basic SELECT statement retrieves columns (fields) FROM a table WHERE a condition is true. Aggregate functions like COUNT, SUM, AVG, and GROUP BY are used for summarising data. JOIN combines rows from multiple tables based on a related column.
结构化查询语言用于与关系数据库交互。基本 SELECT 语句从表中选择列，条件由 WHERE 给出。聚合函数如 COUNT、SUM、AVG 和 GROUP BY 用于汇总数据。JOIN 基于相关列组合多个表的行。
Entity-Relationship Diagram (ER图): An ER diagram visually represents entities as rectangles, attributes as ovals, and relationships as diamonds with cardinality indicators (one-to-one, one-to-many, many-to-many) to design the database schema.
ER 图将实体表示为矩形，属性表示为椭圆，关系表示为菱形并带有基数指示符（一对多、多对多等），用于设计数据库模式。
9. Web Technologies | Web技术
HTML (超文本标记语言): HyperText Markup Language provides the structure and content of web pages using elements (tags) like headings, paragraphs, images, and links. It is not a programming language but a markup language that defines the layout of a page.
超文本标记语言使用标题、段落、图像和链接等元素（标签）提供网页的结构和内容。它不是编程语言，而是定义页面布局的标记语言。
CSS (层叠样式表): Cascading Style Sheets control the presentation and visual styling of HTML elements, including colors, fonts, borders, and layout. CSS separates content from design, enabling responsive design for different screen sizes.
层叠样式表控制 HTML 元素的呈现和视觉样式，包括颜色、字体、边框和布局。CSS 将内容与设计分离，实现不同屏幕尺寸的响应式设计。
JavaScript (JS): JavaScript is a client-side scripting language that adds interactivity to web pages, such as form validation, animations, and dynamic content updates. It runs in the browser and can manipulate the Document Object Model (DOM).
JavaScript 是一种客户端脚本语言，为网页添加交互性，例如表单验证、动画和动态内容更新。它在浏览器中运行，可操作文档对象模型。
Client-Side vs Server-Side Scripting (客户端与服务器端脚本): Client-side scripts run in the user’s browser and can respond to user actions instantly without contacting the server (e.g., JavaScript). Server-side scripts execute on the web server before sending HTML to the client, allowing database access and dynamic page generation (e.g., PHP, Python).
客户端脚本在用户浏览器中运行，无需联系服务器即可即时响应用户操作（例如 JavaScript）。服务器端脚本在Web服务器上执行，然后向客户端发送 HTML，允许数据库访问和动态页面生成（例如 PHP、Python）。
Cookie (Cookie): A cookie is a small text file stored on a user’s computer by a website via the browser, used to remember stateful information like login sessions, preferences, or shopping cart contents.
Cookie 是网站通过浏览器存储在用户计算机上的小文本文件，用于记住有状态信息，如登录会话、偏好设置或购物车内容。
10. Ethics & Environmental Impact | 伦理与环境影响
Digital Divide (数字鸿沟): The digital divide is the gap between those who have access to modern information and communications technology and those who do not, often due to economic, geographical, or educational barriers. This can lead to inequality in opportunities.
数字鸿沟指能够访问现代信息通信技术的人与不能访问的人之间的差距，通常由经济、地理或教育障碍造成。这可能导致机会不平等。
Artificial Intelligence Ethics (人工智能伦理): AI systems raise ethical concerns such as bias in algorithms, lack of transparency in decision-making, job displacement, and the potential for deepfakes or autonomous weapons. Responsible AI requires accountability and fairness.
人工智能系统引发伦理问题，如算法偏见、决策过程缺乏透明度、工作岗位流失，以及深度伪造或自主武器的可能性。负责任的AI需要问责制和公平性。
Green Computing (绿色计算): Green computing practices reduce the environmental impact of technology, including energy-efficient hardware, proper e-waste recycling, virtualisation, and cloud computing that optimises resource usage.
绿色计算实践减少技术对环境的影响，包括节能硬件、妥善的电子废物回收、虚拟化和优化资源使用的云计算。
Intellectual Property (知识产权): Intellectual property (IP) rights protect the creations of the mind; in computing, this includes software licenses, copyright of code and digital media, patents for algorithms, and open-source licensing models like GPL.
知识产权保护智力创造；在计算领域，这包括软件许可证、代码和数字媒体的版权、算法专利，以及如 GPL 的开源许可证模式。
Online Behaviour & Trolling (网络行为与恶意灌水): Acceptable use policies and netiquette promote respectful communication. Trolling is deliberately posting provocative or offensive comments to upset others; it is a form of cyberbullying that can have legal consequences under communications acts.
可接受使用政策和网络礼仪提倡尊重性沟通。恶意灌水是故意发布挑衅或冒犯性评论以激怒他人；它是一种网络欺凌形式，可能根据通信法令产生法律后果。
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