📚 Year 13 CIE Economics Vocabulary Quick Memorisation Guide | A2经济学术语速记指南
Mastering CIE A2 Economics demands a firm command of technical vocabulary. This guide breaks down essential terms into bite-sized definitions and memory hooks, helping you recall concepts accurately under exam pressure. Use it as a quick-reference revision tool alongside your full notes.
攻克CIE A2经济学需要扎实掌握术语。本指南将核心词汇拆解为短小定义和记忆窍门，助你在考试压力下精准回忆概念。可将其作为速查复习工具，配合完整笔记使用。
1. Scarcity, Choice & Opportunity Cost | 稀缺性、选择与机会成本
Scarcity: The basic economic problem that unlimited wants exceed finite resources. A scarce good commands a positive price. Memory tip: think ‘S’ for ‘shortage’ and ‘sacrifice’.
稀缺性：无限欲望超出有限资源的基本经济问题。稀缺物品具有正价格。记忆技巧：将字母’S’联想为’shortage’短缺和’sacrifice’牺牲。
Choice: The decision to allocate scarce resources among competing uses. Every choice involves a trade-off.
选择：在相互竞争的用途间分配稀缺资源的决策。每一个选择都涉及权衡。
Opportunity Cost: The value of the next best alternative forgone. It is the real cost of any decision. Memory hook: ‘the path not taken’ — what you sacrifice.
机会成本：所放弃的次优选择的价值。它是任何决策的真实成本。记忆挂钩：’未选择的路’——你牺牲的东西。
Production Possibility Frontier (PPF): A curve showing the maximum combinations of two goods an economy can produce when all resources are fully and efficiently used. Points inside represent inefficiency; points outside are unattainable. Movement along indicates opportunity cost.
生产可能性边界(PPF)：表示一个经济体在资源被充分且有效利用时能生产的两种商品最大组合的曲线。曲线内的点代表无效率；曲线外的点无法达到。沿曲线移动反映机会成本。
2. Elasticities | 弹性
Price Elasticity of Demand (PED): Measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. PED = %ΔQd / %ΔP. If |PED| > 1, demand is price elastic; if |PED| < 1, inelastic. Memory tip: ‘elastic stretches a lot’ — think of a rubber band.
需求价格弹性(PED)：衡量需求量对价格变动的反应程度。PED = %ΔQd / %ΔP。若|PED| > 1，需求富有弹性；若|PED| < 1，缺乏弹性。记忆技巧：’elastic stretches a lot’——想象一根橡皮筋。
Income Elasticity of Demand (YED): Measures the response of demand to a change in income. YED = %ΔQd / %ΔY. Normal goods have positive YED; inferior goods have negative YED. Luxury goods have YED > 1.
需求收入弹性(YED)：衡量需求对收入变动的反应。YED = %ΔQd / %ΔY。正常品YED为正；低档品YED为负。奢侈品YED > 1。
Cross Elasticity of Demand (XED): Measures the responsiveness of demand for one good to a change in the price of another. XED = %ΔQdA / %ΔPB. Positive for substitutes, negative for complements.
需求交叉弹性(XED)：衡量一种商品的需求对另一种商品价格变动的反应程度。XED = %ΔQdA / %ΔPB。替代品为正，互补品为负。
Price Elasticity of Supply (PES): Measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a price change. PES = %ΔQs / %ΔP. Determined by production time, spare capacity, and stock levels.
供给价格弹性(PES)：衡量供给量对价格变动的反应。PES = %ΔQs / %ΔP。决定因素包括生产时间、闲置产能和库存水平。
3. Market Efficiency & Welfare | 市场效率与福利
Consumer Surplus: The difference between the maximum price consumers are willing to pay and the market price they actually pay. It measures consumer welfare. Memory tip: the area below the demand curve and above the price line.
消费者剩余：消费者愿意支付的最高价格与实际支付的市场价格之差。衡量消费者福利。记忆技巧：需求曲线下方、价格线上方的面积。
Producer Surplus: The difference between the market price producers receive and the minimum price they are willing to accept. Shows producer welfare. Area above the supply curve and below the price line.
生产者剩余：生产者获得的市场价格与其愿意接受的最低价格之差。反映生产者福利。供给曲线上方、价格线下方的面积。
Allocative Efficiency: Achieved when resources are distributed to produce the combination of goods and services consumers most value. Occurs where P = MC (price equals marginal cost).
配置效率：当资源被分配用于生产消费者最看重的商品与服务组合时实现。发生在P = MC（价格等于边际成本）处。
Productive Efficiency: Achieved when a firm produces at the lowest possible average cost. Occurs at the minimum point of the average cost curve. A firm can be productively efficient but not allocatively efficient.
生产效率：当企业以尽可能低的平均成本生产时实现。发生在平均成本曲线的最低点。企业可以生产效率高但配置效率低。
Deadweight Loss: The net loss of economic welfare when the market equilibrium is not Pareto efficient — caused by taxes, subsidies, price controls or monopoly output restriction. Shown as a triangle between demand and supply curves.
无谓损失：市场均衡未达到帕累托效率时的经济福利净损失——由税收、补贴、价格管制或垄断限产造成。在供需曲线之间表现为一个三角形。
4. Market Failure & Government Intervention | 市场失灵与政府干预
Market Failure: A situation where the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently, leading to over- or under-production. Key causes: externalities, public goods, information gaps, and market power.
市场失灵：自由市场未能有效配置资源，导致生产过度或不足的状况。主要原因：外部性、公共品、信息缺口和市场势力。
Negative Externality: A cost imposed on a third party not directly involved in the economic transaction. Example: pollution from a factory. This causes social marginal cost (SMC) to exceed private marginal cost (PMC).
负外部性：强加给未直接参与经济交易的第三方的成本。例如：工厂污染。这导致社会边际成本(SMC)超过私人边际成本(PMC)。
Positive Externality: A benefit enjoyed by a third party. Example: vaccination reducing disease spread. Social marginal benefit (SMB) exceeds private marginal benefit (PMB).
正外部性：第三方享受的收益。例如：疫苗接种减少疾病传播。社会边际收益(SMB)超过私人边际收益(PMB)。
Public Good: A good that is non-rivalrous (one person’s consumption does not reduce availability for others) and non-excludable (impossible to stop non-payers from consuming). Example: national defence. Free-riding leads to under-provision by the market.
公共品：具有非竞争性（一个人的消费不减少他人可得量）和非排他性（无法阻止不付费者消费）的物品。例如：国防。搭便车行为导致市场供给不足。
Government Failure: When government intervention intended to correct market failure actually reduces net welfare. Common causes: imperfect information, political incentives, regulatory capture and unintended consequences.
政府失灵：当旨在纠正市场失灵的政府干预反而降低了净福利。常见原因：不完全信息、政治激励、监管俘获和非预期后果。
5. Costs, Revenues & Market Structures | 成本、收益与市场结构
Fixed Cost (FC): Cost that does not vary with output in the short run, e.g. rent. AFC (average fixed cost) falls as output rises. Memory tip: ‘fixed stays fixed’ like a flat fee.
固定成本(FC)：短期内不随产量变动的成本，如租金。平均固定成本(AFC)随产量上升而下降。记忆技巧：’fixed stays fixed’ 像固定收费。
Variable Cost (VC): Cost that changes directly with output, e.g. raw materials. AVC is average variable cost.
可变成本(VC)：直接随产量变动的成本，如原材料。AVC是平均可变成本。
Marginal Cost (MC): The additional cost of producing one more unit. MC curve typically is U-shaped due to diminishing returns. MC cuts ATC and AVC at their minimum points.
边际成本(MC)：多生产一单位产品所增加的成本。由于收益递减，MC曲线一般呈U形。MC交于ATC和AVC曲线的最低点。
Economies of Scale: A fall in long-run average costs as the scale of production rises. Sources: technical, managerial, financial, marketing and purchasing economies.
规模经济：随着生产规模扩大，长期平均成本下降。来源：技术、管理、财务、营销和采购经济。
Perfect Competition: Many small firms, homogeneous products, freedom of entry and exit, perfect knowledge. Firms are price takers. In the long run, only normal profits are earned (AR = ATC).
完全竞争：众多小企业、同质产品、自由进出、完全信息。企业是价格接受者。长期中只能赚取正常利润(AR = ATC)。
Monopoly: A single firm dominates the market with high barriers to entry. The monopolist is a price maker and can earn supernormal profits in the long run. Profit-maximising output where MC = MR.
垄断：单一企业主导市场，存在高进入壁垒。垄断者是价格制定者，能在长期中获得超额利润。利润最大化产量为MC = MR处。
6. Aggregate Demand & Aggregate Supply | 总需求与总供给
Aggregate Demand (AD): Total planned spending on domestic goods and services at a given price level. AD = C + I + G + (X – M). Components: consumption, investment, government spending, net exports.
总需求(AD)：在给定价格水平下，对国内商品和服务的计划支出总额。AD = C + I + G + (X – M)。组成部分：消费、投资、政府支出、净出口。
Short-run Aggregate Supply (SRAS): The total output firms are willing to supply at different price levels in the short run, assuming some input costs are sticky. Shifts caused by wage rates, raw material prices, taxes, and supply shocks.
短期总供给(SRAS)：在短期内，假设部分要素成本粘性，企业愿意在不同价格水平下供给的总产出。变动因素：工资率、原材料价格、税收和供给冲击。
Long-run Aggregate Supply (LRAS): The productive capacity of an economy when all resources are fully and efficiently employed. Classical LRAS is vertical at the full-employment level of output. Keynesian LRAS becomes vertical at full capacity.
长期总供给(LRAS)：所有资源被充分有效利用时一个经济的生产能力。古典LRAS在充分就业产出水平处垂直。凯恩斯LRAS在达到充分产能时变为垂直。
Multiplier Effect: An initial injection into the circular flow leads to a larger final increase in national income. Multiplier = 1 / (1 – MPC) = 1 / MPS. The size depends on leakages (savings, taxes, imports).
乘数效应：对循环流动的初始注入导致国民收入出现更大的最终增加。乘数 = 1 / (1 – MPC) = 1 / MPS。规模取决于漏出量（储蓄、税收、进口）。
7. Macroeconomic Objectives & Indicators | 宏观经济目标与指标
Economic Growth: An increase in a country’s real Gross Domestic Product (GDP) over time. Measured by the percentage change in real GDP. Potential growth comes from expanding LRAS.
经济增长：一国实际国内生产总值(GDP)随时间的增长。用实际GDP的百分比变化衡量。潜在增长来自LRAS的扩张。
Unemployment: People who are able, available and actively seeking work but cannot find a job. Types: cyclical (demand-deficient), structural, frictional, seasonal. The natural rate of unemployment is the rate when labour market is in equilibrium.
失业：有能力、有空且积极寻找工作但找不到工作的人。类型：周期性（需求不足型）、结构性、摩擦性、季节性。自然失业率是劳动力市场均衡时的失业率。
Inflation: A sustained increase in the general price level. Measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Causes: demand-pull (excess AD) and cost-push (rising costs). Deflation is a sustained fall; disinflation is a decrease in the rate of inflation.
通货膨胀：一般物价水平的持续上涨。用居民消费价格指数(CPI)衡量。原因：需求拉动（AD过多）和成本推动（成本上升）。通货紧缩是物价持续下跌；反通货膨胀是通胀率下降。
Balance of Payments: A record of all financial transactions between a country and the rest of the world. The current account records trade in goods, services, investment incomes and transfers. Must balance with the capital and financial accounts.
国际收支平衡：一国与世界其他地区所有经济交易的记录。经常账户记录货物、服务、投资收入和转移支付。必须与资本和金融账户平衡。
8. Fiscal & Monetary Policy | 财政与货币政策
Fiscal Policy: The use of government spending and taxation to influence aggregate demand and achieve macroeconomic objectives. Expansionary fiscal policy (higher G, lower T) boosts AD; contractionary does the opposite. Automatic stabilisers are features like progressive taxes that reduce fluctuations without active policy change.
财政政策：利用政府支出和税收影响总需求，实现宏观经济目标。扩张性财政政策（增加G、降低T）拉动AD；紧缩性则相反。自动稳定器是如累进税等无需主动政策变化即可减小波动的机制。
Monetary Policy: Actions by the central bank to control money supply and interest rates to influence AD and inflation. Lower interest rates encourage borrowing and investment. Quantitative easing (QE) is an unconventional tool involving central bank purchases of assets to increase money supply.
货币政策：中央银行控制货币供应量和利率以影响AD和通胀的措施。降低利率鼓励借贷和投资。量化宽松(QE)是非常规工具，央行购买资产以增加货币供应。
Supply-side Policy: Measures aimed at increasing the productive potential of the economy (shift LRAS right). Examples: education and training, lower business taxes, deregulation, and infrastructure investment. Improves growth without raising inflation.
供给侧政策：旨在提高经济生产潜力（右移LRAS）的措施。例如：教育培训、降低企业税、放松管制和基础设施投资。在不推高通胀的情况下促进增长。
Crowding Out: A situation where increased government borrowing pushes up interest rates, reducing private sector investment. This can partially offset expansionary fiscal policy.
挤出效应：政府借款增加推高利率，从而减少私人部门投资的情形。这会部分抵消扩张性财政政策的效果。
9. International Trade & Exchange Rates | 国际贸易与汇率
Comparative Advantage: The ability of a country to produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another country. It explains why trade benefits all parties even if one nation is absolutely more efficient in all products. Memory tip: focus on ‘opportunity cost’, not absolute numbers.
比较优势：一国以低于另一国的机会成本生产某种商品的能力。它解释了为何即使一国在所有产品上都绝对高效，贸易仍能使各方受益。记忆技巧：关注’机会成本’，而非绝对数字。
Terms of Trade: The ratio of export prices to import prices. An improvement means a country can buy more imports for a given quantity of exports. Formula: index of export prices / index of import prices x 100.
贸易条件：出口价格与进口价格的比率。贸易条件改善意味着一国用给定出口量能换回更多进口。公式：出口价格指数/进口价格指数 × 100。
Protectionism: Policies to shield domestic industries from foreign competition. Instruments: tariffs (tax on imports), quotas (quantity limits), subsidies to domestic producers, and non-tariff barriers. Can protect jobs but raises prices and invites retaliation.
保护主义：保护国内产业免受外国竞争的政策。工具：关税（进口税）、配额（数量限制）、对国内生产者的补贴和非关税壁垒。可保护就业但推高价格并招致报复。
Exchange Rate: The price of one currency in terms of another. Floating exchange rates are determined by demand and supply; fixed rates are pegged by the government; managed floats lie in between. Appreciation (rise in value) makes exports more expensive and imports cheaper.
汇率：一种货币以另一种货币表示的价格。浮动汇率由供求决定；固定汇率由政府钉住；有管理的浮动介于两者之间。升值（价值上升）使出口变贵、进口变便宜。
Marshall-Lerner Condition & J-Curve: The condition states that a currency depreciation will improve the trade balance in the long run if the sum of price elasticities of demand for exports and imports is greater than 1. The J-curve shows that the trade balance may worsen initially before improving because import contracts are sticky.
马歇尔-勒纳条件与J曲线：该条件指出，若出口和进口需求价格弹性之和大于1，本币贬值将长期改善贸易收支。J曲线显示贸易收支可能先恶化而后改善，因进口合同具有粘性。
10. Key Diagrams & Advanced Relationships | 关键图表与深层关系
Phillips Curve: A diagram showing the inverse relationship between unemployment and inflation in the short run. The long-run Phillips curve is vertical at the natural rate of unemployment, implying no trade-off in the long run.
菲利普斯曲线：显示短期失业与通胀之间反向关系的图形。长期菲利普斯曲线在自然失业率处垂直，意味着长期不存在权衡取舍。
Natural Rate of Unemployment (NRU): The rate of unemployment that exists when the labour market is in equilibrium — composed of frictional and structural unemployment. Attempts to push unemployment below the NRU cause accelerating inflation.
自然失业率(NRU)：劳动力市场均衡时的失业率——由摩擦性失业和结构性失业构成。试图将失业率压低至NRU以下会导致通胀加速。
Liquidity Trap: A situation where interest rates are so low that monetary policy becomes ineffective — people hoard cash rather than spend or invest. Expansionary monetary policy cannot stimulate the economy further.
流动性陷阱：利率低至货币政策失效的状况——人们囤积现金而非消费或投资。扩张性货币政策无法进一步刺激经济。
Hysteresis: The idea that a period of prolonged low aggregate demand can cause permanent damage to the supply side, raising the natural rate of unemployment. Workers lose skills and motivation, shifting the LRAS leftward.
迟滞效应：长期总需求低迷会对供给侧造成永久性损害，推高自然失业率。工人技能和动力丧失，LRAS左移。
Automatic Stabilisers: Government fiscal mechanisms that reduce fluctuations in the business cycle without deliberate action — progressive taxes and unemployment benefits. In a recession, tax revenues fall while transfer payments rise, supporting disposable income.
自动稳定器：无需刻意行动即可减小经济周期
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