📚 Year 13 Edexcel Biology: Rapid Vocabulary Recall Guide | Edexcel Year 13 生物：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the precise terminology is the key to unlocking top marks in Edexcel Year 13 Biology. This guide breaks down the essential vocabulary across all major A2 topics, providing concise English definitions followed by their Chinese equivalents. Use these paired explanations for active recall, bilingual reinforcement, and exam confidence.
精准掌握术语是 Edexcel Year 13 生物获得高分的关键。本指南涵盖 A2 阶段所有核心主题的基本词汇，先给出简洁的英文定义，再提供对应的中文解释。你可以利用这些配对内容进行主动回忆、中英对照巩固，从容应对考试。
1. Photosynthesis Key Terms | 光合作用关键术语
Thylakoid membrane: A system of flattened, interconnected membrane sacs inside chloroplasts where the light-dependent reactions occur; it houses photosystems, electron carrier chains, and ATP synthase.
类囊体膜：叶绿体内扁平的囊状膜系统，是光反应的发生场所，含有光系统、电子传递链和 ATP 合酶。
Photolysis: The light-driven splitting of water molecules in the thylakoid space, yielding oxygen (O₂), hydrogen ions (H⁺), and electrons that replace those lost by photosystem II.
光解作用：在类囊体腔内利用光能裂解水分子，产生氧气、氢离子和电子，用于补充光系统 II 失去的电子。
Non-cyclic photophosphorylation: The flow of electrons from water through photosystem II and photosystem I to NADP⁺, generating ATP and reduced NADP; electrons do not cycle back to the original photosystem.
非循环光合磷酸化：电子从水经光系统 II 和光系统 I 传递到 NADP⁺ 的过程，生成 ATP 和还原型 NADP，电子不再返回原光系统。
Cyclic photophosphorylation: An alternative pathway in which electrons from photosystem I are cycled back to the electron transport chain, producing ATP only, with no NADP reduction or O₂ release.
循环光合磷酸化：光系统 I 的电子返回电子传递链的替代途径，仅产生 ATP，不还原 NADP，也不释放氧气。
Calvin cycle: The light-independent set of reactions in the stroma; CO₂ is fixed by RuBisCO onto RuBP, then reduced by ATP and reduced NADP to form triose phosphate, while regenerating RuBP.
卡尔文循环：发生在基质中的不依赖光的反应；RuBisCO 将 CO₂ 固定到 RuBP 上，再利用 ATP 和还原型 NADP 还原生成磷酸丙糖，同时再生 RuBP。
RuBisCO: Ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase, the enzyme that catalyses the first step of carbon fixation in the Calvin cycle; it has both carboxylase and oxygenase activities.
RuBisCO：核酮糖-1,5-二磷酸羧化/加氧酶，催化卡尔文循环中碳固定的第一步，兼具羧化酶和加氧酶活性。
Accessory pigments: Pigments such as chlorophyll b and carotenoids that absorb additional wavelengths of light and pass the energy to the reaction centre of a photosystem, broadening the light absorption spectrum.
辅助色素：如叶绿素 b 和类胡萝卜素，能吸收更多波段的光并将能量传递给光系统的反应中心，拓宽光吸收光谱。
2. Respiration Key Terms | 细胞呼吸关键术语
Glycolysis: The cytoplasmic breakdown of glucose (6C) into two molecules of pyruvate (3C), yielding a net gain of 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation and 2 reduced NAD.
糖酵解：葡萄糖（6C）在细胞质中分解为两分子丙酮酸（3C），通过底物水平磷酸化净生成 2 ATP 和 2 个还原型 NAD。
Link reaction: The irreversible conversion of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A in the mitochondrial matrix, releasing CO₂ and reducing NAD⁺; it links glycolysis to the Krebs cycle.
连接反应：丙酮酸在线粒体基质中不可逆地转变为乙酰辅酶 A，释放 CO₂ 并还原 NAD⁺，将糖酵解与克雷布斯循环衔接起来。
Krebs cycle: A cyclical series of reactions in the matrix where acetyl CoA is fully oxidised, producing CO₂, reduced NAD, reduced FAD, and ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation; oxaloacetate is regenerated.
克雷布斯循环：基质中进行的一系列循环反应，乙酰辅酶 A 被彻底氧化，生成 CO₂、还原型 NAD、还原型 FAD 以及经底物水平磷酸化产生的 ATP，并再生草酰乙酸。
Oxidative phosphorylation: The process in which electrons from reduced NAD and reduced FAD travel down the electron transport chain on the cristae, driving H⁺ pumping and chemiosmotic synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase.
氧化磷酸化：还原型 NAD 和还原型 FAD 的电子沿嵴上的电子传递链传递，驱动 H⁺ 泵出，通过化学渗透偶联 ATP 合酶合成 ATP 的过程。
Chemiosmosis: The movement of protons down their electrochemical gradient through ATP synthase, providing the energy for ATP synthesis; central to both oxidative phosphorylation and photophosphorylation.
化学渗透：质子顺电化学梯度通过 ATP 合酶的运动，为 ATP 合成提供能量；是氧化磷酸化和光合磷酸化的核心机制。
Substrate-level phosphorylation: The direct transfer of a phosphate group from a reactive intermediate to ADP, forming ATP without the use of an electron transport chain or chemiosmosis.
底物水平磷酸化：磷酸基团从高能中间产物直接转移至 ADP 形成 ATP，不依赖电子传递链或化学渗透。
Anaerobic respiration in animals: In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is reduced to lactate by the enzyme lactate dehydrogenase, regenerating NAD⁺ so that glycolysis can continue producing a small amount of ATP.
动物无氧呼吸：缺氧时丙酮酸被乳酸脱氢酶还原为乳酸，同时再生 NAD⁺，使糖酵解能继续产生少量 ATP。
3. Homeostasis & Kidney Function Terms | 稳态与肾脏功能术语
Negative feedback: A control mechanism in which a change from the set point triggers a corrective response that reverses the change, restoring the original condition.
负反馈：一种调控机制，当偏离设定点时引发纠正性响应，逆转该变化，恢复原有状态。
Ultrafiltration: The filtration of blood plasma under high hydrostatic pressure in the glomerulus, producing a filtrate that contains water, ions, glucose, and urea but lacks large proteins and cells.
超滤作用：在肾小球高静水压作用下过滤血浆，形成的滤液含有水、离子、葡萄糖和尿素，但不含大分子蛋白质和血细胞。
Selective reabsorption: The recovery of useful solutes (e.g., all glucose, most ions, and water) from the proximal convoluted tubule back into the blood, often via active transport and cotransport.
选择性重吸收：将有用物质（如全部葡萄糖、大部分离子和水）从近曲小管回收到血液的过程，常涉及主动运输和协同转运。
Loop of Henle: A U-shaped nephron segment that creates a high solute concentration in the medullary interstitium through countercurrent multiplication, enabling the production of concentrated urine.
亨勒袢：肾单位中的 U 形结构，通过逆流倍增作用在髓质间质建立高溶质浓度，使尿液得以浓缩。
ADH (antidiuretic hormone): A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that increases the water permeability of the collecting duct walls by promoting aquaporin insertion, resulting in more water reabsorption.
抗利尿激素 (ADH)：垂体后叶释放的激素，通过促使集合管上皮细胞插入水通道蛋白，增加其对水的通透性，从而加强水的重吸收。
Osmoregulation: The homeostatic control of water potential and solute balance in body fluids, primarily achieved by adjusting the volume and concentration of urine.
渗透调节：对体液水势和溶质平衡的稳态调控，主要通过调节尿量和尿液浓度实现。
Aquaporins: Protein channels in cell membranes that facilitate the rapid movement of water molecules; their insertion into the collecting duct membrane is upregulated by ADH.
水通道蛋白：细胞膜上协助水分子快速通过的通道蛋白；ADH 上调其插入集合管膜的量。
4. Nervous Coordination & Action Potential Terms | 神经协调与动作电位术语
Resting potential: The electrical potential difference across the axon membrane when a neurone is not transmitting an impulse, typically around -70 mV, maintained by Na⁺/K⁺ pumps and differential ion permeability.
静息电位：神经元不传导冲动时轴突膜两侧的电位差，通常约为 -70 mV，由钠钾泵和离子通透性差异维持。
Action potential: A rapid, transient reversal of membrane potential caused by the sequential opening of voltage-gated Na⁺ and K⁺ channels, leading to depolarization and repolarization.
动作电位：膜电位的快速短暂反转，由电压门控钠通道和钾通道依次开放引发，经历去极化和复极化过程。
Depolarisation: The phase in which voltage-gated Na⁺ channels open, allowing Na⁺ influx and causing the membrane potential to become positive inside relative to outside.
去极化：电压门控钠通道开放、钠离子内流，使膜内电位相对于膜外变为正值的阶段。
Saltatory conduction: The propagation of action potentials along myelinated axons, where the impulse jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next, increasing conduction speed drastically.
跳跃传导：动作电位在有髓鞘的轴突上跳跃式传播，冲动从一个郎飞结跳到下一个，大大加快传导速度。
Synapse: The junction between two neurones where an action potential triggers the release of a neurotransmitter, which diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane.
突触：两个神经元之间的连接处，动作电位引发神经递质释放，递质扩散过突触间隙并与突触后膜受体结合。
Temporal summation: The additive effect of several action potentials arriving in rapid succession at the same presynaptic terminal, causing the postsynaptic membrane to reach threshold.
时间总和：同一突触前末梢快速连续传来多个动作电位的叠加效应，使突触后膜达到阈电位。
Spatial summation: The combined effect of simultaneous action potentials from several different presynaptic neurones converging on the same postsynaptic neurone, raising the chance of an action potential.
空间总和：多个不同突触前神经元同时传来动作电位的叠加，汇聚于同一突触后神经元，增加产生动作电位的可能性。
5. Muscle Contraction Key Terms | 肌肉收缩关键术语
Sarcomere: The basic contractile unit of striated muscle, extending from one Z-line to the next; its shortening during contraction is explained by the sliding filament theory.
肌小节：横纹肌的基本收缩单位，位于相邻两个 Z 线之间；收缩时其缩短由肌丝滑行理论解释。
Actin: The thin filament protein in muscle fibres; each actin strand has binding sites for myosin heads, which are normally blocked by tropomyosin in a resting muscle.
肌动蛋白：肌纤维中的细肌丝蛋白；每条肌动蛋白链上有肌球蛋白头部结合位点，静息时被原肌球蛋白阻断。
Myosin: The thick filament protein with heads that bind to actin and perform power strokes using energy from ATP hydrolysis, pulling the thin filaments toward the sarcomere centre.
肌球蛋白：粗肌丝蛋白，其头部与肌动蛋白结合，利用 ATP 水解的能量完成动力冲程，将细肌丝拉向肌小节中心。
Sliding filament theory: The theory that muscle contraction results from thin actin filaments sliding over thick myosin filaments, shortening the sarcomere without the filaments themselves changing length.
肌丝滑行理论：肌肉收缩源于细肌动蛋白丝在粗肌球蛋白丝上滑行，使肌小节缩短而肌丝本身长度不变的理论。
Cross-bridge cycle: The repeated sequence of myosin head attachment, power stroke, detachment, and re-cocking, driven by ATP binding and hydrolysis, that generates muscle tension.
横桥循环：肌球蛋白头部附着、动力冲程、解离和重新蓄能的重复过程，由 ATP 结合与水解驱动，产生肌肉张力。
Tropomyosin and troponin: Regulatory proteins associated with actin; in the absence of Ca²⁺, tropomyosin blocks myosin binding sites; when Ca²⁺ binds to troponin, the complex shifts, exposing the sites.
原肌球蛋白与肌钙蛋白：与肌动蛋白结合的调节蛋白；无 Ca²⁺ 时原肌球蛋白掩盖结合位点；Ca²⁺ 与肌钙蛋白结合后，复合物移动，暴露结合位点。
Phosphocreatine: A high-energy phosphate store in muscle cells that rapidly donates phosphate to ADP to regenerate ATP during short bursts of intense activity.
磷酸肌酸：肌细胞中的高能磷酸储备，在短时高强度活动中迅速将磷酸基团转移给 ADP，快速再生 ATP。
6. Ecology & Ecosystems Key Terms | 生态与生态系统关键术语
Ecosystem: A community of interacting organisms and their abiotic environment, functioning as a unit through energy flow and nutrient cycling.
生态系统：相互作用的生物群落及其非生物环境，通过能量流动和物质循环构成的功能单位。
Community: All the populations of different species living and interacting in a particular area at the same time.
群落：在特定时间和区域内共同生活、相互作用的全部不同物种种群。
Ecological niche: The role of a species within its ecosystem, encompassing its habitat, feeding relationships, and interactions with other organisms and the environment.
生态位：物种在生态系统中的角色，包括其栖息地、食物关系及与其他生物和环境的相互作用。
Carrying capacity: The maximum stable population size that an environment can sustain indefinitely, given the available resources such as food, water, and shelter.
环境容纳量：在给定的食物、水和栖息地等资源条件下，环境能长期维持的最大稳定种群数量。
Primary succession: The colonisation of a lifeless, barren area (e.g., bare rock after a volcanic eruption) by pioneer species, eventually developing into a climax community over time.
初生演替：从无生命的裸地（如火山爆发后的裸岩）开始，由先锋物种定居，逐步发展成顶极群落的过程。
Secondary succession: The recolonisation of an area after a disturbance (e.g., fire, farming) that leaves the soil intact; it progresses faster than primary succession.
次生演替：在保留土壤的受干扰区域（如火、耕作后）重新定居的过程，进度比初生演替快。
Climax community: A relatively stable, self-perpetuating endpoint of succession whose species composition is determined by the prevailing climate and soil conditions.
顶极群落：演替的相对稳定终点，物种组成由主导气候和土壤条件决定，能够自行维持。
7. Nutrient Cycles Key Terms | 养分循环关键术语
Carbon sink: A natural reservoir that absorbs and stores more carbon from the atmosphere than it releases, such as oceans, peat bogs, and mature forests.
碳汇：吸收并储存大气中碳的自然库，其吸收量大于释放量，如海洋、泥炭沼和成熟森林。
Nitrogen fixation: The conversion of atmospheric nitrogen (N₂) into ammonia (NH₃) or ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) by free-living or symbiotic bacteria (e.g., Rhizobium) using the enzyme nitrogenase.
固氮作用：将大气中的氮气（N₂）转变为氨或铵离子，由自由生活或共生细菌（如根瘤菌）利用固氮酶完成。
Ammonification: The production of ammonium ions from the decomposition of organic nitrogenous compounds (proteins, nucleic acids) by saprobiotic microorganisms.
氨化作用：腐生微生物分解有机含氮化合物（蛋白质、核酸）产生铵离子的过程。
Nitrification: A two-step aerobic process in which ammonium ions are first oxidised to nitrite (NO₂⁻) by Nitrosomonas, then to nitrate (NO₃⁻) by Nitrobacter.
硝化作用：需氧的两步过程，铵离子先被亚硝酸菌氧化为亚硝酸根，再被硝酸菌氧化为硝酸根。
Denitrification: The anaerobic reduction of nitrate ions back to nitrogen gas by denitrifying bacteria, often occurring in waterlogged, oxygen-poor soils.
反硝化作用：反硝化细菌在厌氧条件下将硝酸盐还原为氮气，常发生在渍水缺氧的土壤中。
Mutualism in the nitrogen cycle: The symbiotic relationship between leguminous plants and Rhizobium bacteria, where bacteria supply fixed nitrogen and plants provide carbohydrates and a protective environment.
氮循环中的互利共生：豆科植物与根瘤菌之间的共生关系，细菌提供固定态氮，植物提供碳水化合物和保护环境。
Carbon cycle fossil fuel combustion: The rapid oxidation of long-buried carbon back into atmospheric CO₂, contributing to rising greenhouse gas concentrations and climate change.
化石燃料燃烧在碳循环中：将长期埋藏的碳迅速氧化为大气 CO₂，导致温室气体浓度上升和气候变化。
8. Immunology & Vaccination Key Terms | 免疫与疫苗关键术语
Antigen: Any molecule (often protein or polysaccharide) that is recognised by the immune system as non-self and triggers an immune response, typically by binding to antibodies or lymphocyte receptors.
抗原：被免疫系统识别为非己的任何分子（常为蛋白质或多糖），能通过与抗体或淋巴细胞受体结合引发免疫应答。
Antibody: A Y-shaped glycoprotein (immunoglobulin) produced by plasma cells that specifically binds to an antigen, neutralising pathogens or marking them for destruction.
抗体：由浆细胞产生的 Y 形糖蛋白（免疫球蛋白），能特异性地与抗原结合，中和病原体或标记其进行清除。
T helper cell: A lymphocyte that becomes activated upon binding to antigen-presenting cells and releases cytokines that stimulate B cells, cytotoxic T cells, and macrophages.
辅助T细胞：与抗原呈递细胞结合后被激活的淋巴细胞，释放细胞因子刺激 B 细胞、细胞毒性 T 细胞和巨噬细胞。
Cytotoxic T cell: A lymphocyte that recognises and destroys virus-infected or cancerous cells by releasing perforin and granzymes, inducing apoptosis.
细胞毒性T细胞：识别并摧毁病毒感染细胞或癌细胞的淋巴细胞，通过释放穿孔素和颗粒酶诱导凋亡。
Plasma cell: An activated B lymphocyte that produces large quantities of a specific antibody; each plasma cell secretes only one type of antibody.
浆细胞：被激活的 B 淋巴细胞，大量生产特定抗体；每个浆细胞只分泌一种抗体。
Memory cell: Long-lived lymphocytes (both B and T) that persist after an infection, enabling a faster and stronger secondary immune response upon re-exposure to the same antigen.
记忆细胞：感染后长期存活的淋巴细胞（B 和T），再次接触相同抗原时能引发更快、更强的二次免疫应答。
Herd immunity: A form of indirect protection where a high proportion of the population is immune to a disease (through vaccination or prior infection), reducing the spread to susceptible individuals.
群体免疫：通过高比例的人群具备免疫力（经由疫苗或既往感染），间接降低疾病向易感者传播的保护形式。
9. Microbiology & Antibiotics Key Terms | 微生物与抗生素关键术语
Pathogen: A microorganism (bacterium, virus, fungus, or protoctist) that causes disease in its host by invading tissues, producing toxins, or triggering excessive immune responses.
病原体：引起宿主疾病的微生物（细菌、病毒、真菌或原生生物），通过侵入组织、产生毒素或引发过度免疫应答致病。
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