📚 AS OCR Philosophy: Terminology & Memory Guide | AS OCR 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering the core vocabulary is often the hardest part of AS Philosophy. This guide pairs every essential term with a clear definition, a memorable shortcut, and common pitfalls – helping you move from confusion to confident analysis in both exam essays and class discussions.
掌握核心词汇往往是 AS 哲学中最困难的部分。本指南为每个关键术语配上了清晰的定义、好记的速记法和常见误区——帮助你从迷茫过渡到自信地分析，无论是在考试论文还是课堂讨论中。
1. A Priori & A Posteriori | 先验与后验
A priori knowledge is justified independently of experience – think ‘Before Experience’ (the letter ‘A’ comes before ‘P’ in the alphabet). Examples include mathematical truths (2 + 2 = 4) and logical deductions.
先验知识的辩护不依赖经验——记住“先于经验”（字母 A 在字母 P 之前）。例子包括数学真理（2 + 2 = 4）和逻辑演绎。
A posteriori knowledge depends on sensory experience – ‘Post-Experience’. Scientific observations, such as ‘water boils at 100 °C’, are a posteriori.
后验知识依赖于感官经验——”经验之后”。科学观察，如“水在 100 °C 沸腾”，是后验的。
Memory trick: Alphabet order: A prior (before), P posterior (after). Imagine a person named ‘A Priori’ who wakes up already knowing everything without looking out the window.
记忆窍门： 字母顺序：A 是前，P 是后。想象一个叫“阿先”的人，不用朝窗外看就已经知道一切。
2. Analytic & Synthetic | 分析判断与综合判断
An analytic statement is true by virtue of the meaning of the words alone – the predicate is contained in the subject. Example: ‘All bachelors are unmarried.’ Denying it leads to a contradiction.
分析判断仅凭借词语的意义为真——谓词包含在主词之中。例如：“所有单身汉都是未婚的。”否定它会导致矛盾。
A synthetic statement adds information beyond the concept – the predicate is not contained in the subject. Example: ‘The bachelor is unhappy.’ Truth depends on how the world is.
综合判断在概念之外添加了信息——谓词不包含在主词之中。例如：“这个单身汉不快乐。”其真假取决于世界如何。
Memory trick: Analytic = ‘Analyse the word inside’; Synthetic = ‘Synthesise with extra info.’ Think of a synthetic vitamin pill: you add something that was not originally there.
记忆窍门： 分析的 = “分析内部的词”；综合的 = “合成额外信息”。想象一颗综合维生素片：你添加了原本不存在的成分。
3. Necessary & Contingent | 必然与偶然
A necessary truth holds in every possible world and cannot be false. Classic example: ‘Triangles have three sides.’
必然真理在所有可能世界中都成立，不可能为假。经典例子：“三角形有三条边。”
A contingent truth is true in the actual world but could have been otherwise. Example: ‘London is the capital of the UK’ – it might have been York.
偶然真理在现实世界中为真，但本可能不是这样。例如：“伦敦是英国的首都”——它本可能是约克。
Memory trick: ‘Necessary’ rhymes with ‘no messy’ – no mess, no variation. ‘Contingent’ sounds like ‘continental’, and continents shift – they could be arranged differently.
记忆窍门： “必然”谐音“必严”——必严格不变。“偶然”谐音“偶而”——偶尔存在变数。
4. Deduction & Induction | 演绎与归纳
Deductive arguments aim to be valid: if premises are true, the conclusion must be true. The classic structure: All men are mortal; Socrates is a man; therefore Socrates is mortal.
演绎论证旨在有效：如果前提为真，结论必然为真。经典结构：人皆有一死；苏格拉底是人；所以苏格拉底会死。
Inductive arguments aim to be strong: premises make the conclusion probable, not certain. Example: The sun has risen every day in recorded history; therefore it will rise tomorrow.
归纳论证旨在强度：前提使结论很可能，而非必然。例如：有史以来太阳每天都升起；所以明天太阳会升起。
Memory trick: Deduction = ‘D-E’ → the end is Entailed. Induction = ‘I-N’ → the conclusion is iN probable. Visualize a detective (deduction) who deduces certainty, and a scientist (induction) who induces general laws from data.
记忆窍门： 演绎 = “必然推出”；归纳 = “纳入概率”。想象一个侦探演绎出必然结论，一位科学家从数据归纳出一般规律。
5. Realism & Anti-Realism | 实在论与反实在论
Realism (in various contexts) holds that certain entities exist mind-independently. Moral realism: there are objective moral facts. Scientific realism: unobservable entities like electrons really exist.
实在论（在不同语境中）认为某些实体独立于心灵而存在。道德实在论：存在客观的道德事实。科学实在论：不可观察的实体（如电子）真实存在。
Anti-realism denies such mind-independent existence. Moral anti-realism: moral values are projections of our attitudes. Scientific anti-realism: theories are merely useful instruments, not true descriptions of unobservables.
反实在论否认这种独立于心灵的存在。道德反实在论：道德价值是我们态度的投射。科学反实在论：理论只是有用工具，而非对不可观察物的真实描述。
Memory trick: Realism = ‘Really independent’. Anti-realism = ‘Anti-mind-independent’. Think of a realist as someone who says red apples exist even when nobody looks; an anti-realist says colour is only a creature’s experience.
记忆窍门： 实在论 = “实”在独立。反实在论 = “反”独立于心。实在论者说苹果不看也是红的；反实在论者说颜色只是生物的经验。
6. Utilitarianism | 功利主义
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist ethical theory: the right action is the one that maximizes overall happiness or pleasure and minimizes pain. Key figures: Jeremy Bentham (hedonic calculus) and John Stuart Mill (higher and lower pleasures).
功利主义是一种后果论伦理理论：正确的行为是最大化总体幸福或快乐、最小化痛苦的行为。代表人物：边沁（快乐计算法）和密尔（高级与低级快乐）。
Memory trick: ‘Util’ sounds like ‘USB utility’ – maximise useful output. Remember the slogan: ‘Greatest good for the greatest number.’ Visualize a giant scale weighing happiness and pain.
记忆窍门： “功利”联想到“公利”——公共的最大利益。记住口号：“为最多数人求最大善。”想象一架大天平，一头放快乐，一头放痛苦。
7. Deontology | 道义论
Deontology focuses on duties and rules, not consequences. Immanuel Kant’s categorical imperative: act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law. Moral worth comes from acting out of duty, not inclination.
道义论关注义务和规则，而非后果。康德的绝对命令：只依据你同时能够愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。道德价值来自出于义务的行动，而非出于偏好。
Memory trick: ‘Deon’ in Greek means duty. Think of a ‘deontological door’ – you must go through it because the rule says so, regardless of what’s on the other side. The ‘categorical imperative’ is a rule drill sergeant: ‘Do it because it is your duty!’.
记忆窍门： 道义 = “道”德义“务”。想象一扇“道义之门”，你必须走过去，因为规则如此。绝对命令像一名教官：“这是你的义务，执行！”
8. Virtue Ethics | 美德伦理
Virtue ethics (Aristotle) focuses on character and the development of virtues (courage, temperance, wisdom) to achieve eudaimonia (flourishing). The doctrine of the mean: virtue lies between excess and deficiency.
美德伦理（亚里士多德）关注品格和美德（勇敢、节制、智慧）的培养，以实现 eudaimonia（幸福/繁盛）。中庸之道：美德处于过度与不足之间。
Memory trick: Virtue = ‘Valuable traits’. The ‘golden mean’ is like Goldilocks – not too hot, not too cold. Aristotle’s method: practice courage until it becomes second nature, just like a musician practices scales.
记忆窍门： 美德 = “美”好品“德”。中庸之道像金发姑娘——不烫不凉刚刚好。亚里士多德的方法：练习勇敢，直到它成为第二本性，就像音乐家练习音阶。
9. Determinism & Free Will | 决定论与自由意志
Determinism: every event has a cause, and given the past and the laws of nature, only one future is possible. Fatalism adds that future is fixed, but determinism merely says it is causally determined.
决定论：每一个事件都有原因，给定过去和自然规律，只有一个可能未来。宿命论补充说未来是固定的，但决定论只是说它是因果决定的。
Libertarianism (free will) argues that we have genuine alternative possibilities and moral responsibility. Compatibilism (soft determinism) claims free will is compatible with determinism – you are free if you act on your desires without coercion.
自由意志主义认为我们有真实的替代可能性和道德责任。相容论（柔性决定论）声称自由意志与决定论相容——如果你没有受到强迫，按自己的欲望行动，你就是自由的。
Memory trick: Determinism = ‘D train’ – once on the track, no branching. Libertarian free will = ‘Liberty to will otherwise’. Compatibilism = ‘Compatible couples’ – free will and determinism can live together.
记忆窍门： 决定论 = “单轨列车”，轨道没有分支。自由意志 = “另有选择”。相容论 = “相容夫妻”，自由与决定可以同住。
10. Logical Fallacies | 逻辑谬误速记
Begging the question (petitio principii): assuming what you are trying to prove in the premises. Gambler’s fallacy: believing past independent events affect future probabilities. Ad hominem: attacking the person instead of the argument. False dilemma: presenting only two options when more exist.
乞题（循环论证）：在前提中假设了所要证明的结论。赌徒谬误：认为过去独立事件会影响未来概率。人身攻击：攻击人而非论证。假两难：只给出两个选项，其实有更多。
Memory table:
| Fallacy | One-liner | Visual mnemonic |
| Begging the question | Circular reasoning | A snake eating its own tail |
| Gambler’s fallacy | The dice have no memory | A roulette wheel thinking ‘Red is due’ |
| Ad hominem | Play the ball, not the player | A boxer punching a debater |
| False dilemma | Black-and-white thinking | A zebra without any grey stripes |
记忆表格： 乞题 = 蛇咬尾；赌徒谬误 = 骰子没记忆；人身攻击 = 打人不打球；假两难 = 斑马只有黑白条没有灰色。
11. Cognitivism & Non-Cognitivism | 认知主义与非认知主义
Moral cognitivism holds that moral statements express beliefs that are truth-apt (can be true or false). Naturalism (e.g., utilitarianism) reduces moral properties to natural ones. Non-naturalism (e.g., Moore’s intuitionism) insists moral truths are sui generis.
道德认知主义认为道德陈述表达可赋真值的信念（可以为真或假）。自然主义（如功利主义）将道德属性还原为自然属性。非自然主义（如摩尔的直觉主义）坚持道德真理是独特的。
Non-cognitivism claims moral statements do not express beliefs but emotions (emotivism: ‘Boo!’/’Hurrah!’) or prescriptions (prescriptivism: ‘Do not steal!’). They are not truth-apt.
非认知主义声称道德陈述不表达信念，而是表达情感（情感主义：“嘘！”/“好哇！”）或规定（规定主义：“不要偷窃！”）。它们不可赋真值。
Memory trick: Cognitivist = ‘Cognition knows truth/falsehood’. Non-cognitivist = ‘No cognitive truth, just feels’. Think of a football fan shouting: ‘Boo, referee!’ – that expresses an attitude, not a true/false claim (emotivism).
记忆窍门： 认知主义 = “认”知真/假。非认知主义 = “不”认真假，只是情绪。想象球迷大喊：“裁判，嘘！”——这表达态度，不是真假断言（情感主义）。
12. Meta-Ethics Summary Table | 元伦理学总览表
This table consolidates the meta-ethical positions in a glance – ideal for last-minute revision.
这个表格一瞥间整合元伦理学立场——非常适合考前速览。
| Position | Cognitive? | Mind-independent moral facts? | Memory label |
| Naturalism | Yes | Yes (natural facts) | ‘Good = pleasure’ (Bentham) |
| Intuitionism | Yes | Yes (non-natural) | ‘Yellow is just yellow – good is just good’ |
| Emotivism | No | No | ‘Boo! / Hurrah!’ |
| Prescriptivism | No | No | ‘Do this! Don’t do that!’ |
Remember: for AS OCR, always link terms to specific philosophers – Bentham, Mill, Kant, Aristotle, Moore, Ayer, and Hare appear regularly in papers.
记住：对于 AS OCR，始终将术语与具体哲学家联系起来——边沁、密尔、康德、亚里士多德、摩尔、艾耶尔、黑尔在试卷中频繁出现。
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