📚 A-Level Cambridge Engineering: Glossary and Terminology Quick Guide | A-Level Cambridge 工程：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering key terminology is essential for success in A-Level Cambridge Engineering. This quick guide covers fundamental terms across mechanics, materials, thermodynamics, electronics, and more. Each entry provides a concise definition in English and Chinese to aid memorisation and bilingual understanding.
掌握关键术语对于在 A-Level 剑桥工程考试中取得成功至关重要。本速记指南涵盖了力学、材料、热力学、电子学等领域的核心词汇。每个条目均提供简洁的英文和中文定义，以帮助记忆和双语理解。
1. Mechanics and Forces | 力学与力
Force (F): A vector quantity that causes an object with mass to change its velocity. It is measured in newtons (N).
力 (F): 一个矢量，能使具有质量的物体改变其速度。单位为牛顿 (N)。
Mass (m): A scalar measure of the amount of matter in an object, independent of its location. Standard unit is the kilogram (kg).
质量 (m): 物体所含物质多少的标量度，与所处位置无关。标准单位为千克 (kg)。
Weight (W): The gravitational force acting on a mass. It is calculated using the acceleration due to gravity (g ≈ 9.81 m s⁻²).
W = m × g
重量 (W): 作用在质量上的重力，利用重力加速度 (g ≈ 9.81 m s⁻²) 计算。
Moment (M): The turning effect of a force about a pivot. Moment equals the force multiplied by the perpendicular distance from the pivot.
力矩 (M): 力绕支点的转动效应，等于力乘以支点到力作用线的垂直距离。
Equilibrium: A state where the net force and net moment on a body are both zero, resulting in no translational or rotational acceleration.
平衡: 物体所受的合外力与合力矩均为零的状态，无平动或转动加速度。
Resultant force: The single force that has the same effect as all the individual forces acting on an object. Found by vector addition.
合力: 与作用在物体上所有单独力作用效果相同的单一力，通过矢量相加求得。
Free-body diagram: A simplified sketch showing all external forces acting on a single body, with arrows indicating direction and magnitude.
受力图: 仅表示作用在单个物体上所有外力的简化示意图，用箭头表示方向与大小。
2. Materials and Properties | 材料与性质
Stress (σ): The internal resistance of a material to deformation, defined as force per unit area. Units are pascals (Pa).
σ = F ÷ A
应力 (σ): 材料抵抗变形的内部阻力，定义为单位面积上的力。单位为帕斯卡 (Pa)。
Strain (ε): A dimensionless measure of deformation representing the change in length divided by the original length.
ε = ΔL ÷ L₀
应变 (ε): 无量纲的形变量度，表示长度变化量与原始长度的比值。
Young’s modulus (E): The ratio of stress to strain in the elastic region, indicating a material’s stiffness. E = σ ÷ ε.
杨氏模量 (E): 弹性范围内应力与应变的比值，表征材料的刚度。E = σ ÷ ε。
Yield strength: The stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Beyond this point permanent deformation occurs.
屈服强度: 材料开始发生塑性变形的应力值，超过此点产生永久变形。
Ultimate tensile strength (UTS): The maximum stress a material can withstand while being stretched before necking and fracture.
极限抗拉强度 (UTS): 材料在拉伸过程中所能承受的最大应力，之后发生颈缩并断裂。
Ductility: The ability of a material to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture, often measured by elongation.
延展性: 材料在断裂前承受显著塑性变形的能力，通常用伸长率衡量。
Hardness: Resistance of a material to localised plastic deformation, such as indentation or scratching.
硬度: 材料抵抗局部塑性变形（如压入或刮擦）的能力。
Toughness: The amount of energy per unit volume a material can absorb before fracturing, combining strength and ductility.
韧性: 材料在断裂前单位体积能吸收的能量，兼顾强度与延展性。
3. Thermodynamics | 热力学
Temperature (T): A measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance. Common scales include Celsius (°C) and Kelvin (K).
温度 (T): 物质内粒子平均动能的量度。常用标度包括摄氏度 (°C) 和开尔文 (K)。
Heat (Q): Thermal energy transferred between systems due to a temperature difference, measured in joules (J).
热量 (Q): 由于温差而在系统间传递的热能，单位为焦耳 (J)。
Internal energy (U): The sum of the random kinetic and potential energies of all particles within a system.
内能 (U): 系统内所有粒子无规则动能与势能的总和。
Specific heat capacity (c): The energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 K. Unit: J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹.
比热容 (c): 使 1 kg 物质温度升高 1 K 所需能量。单位：J kg⁻¹ K⁻¹。
Latent heat (L): The heat absorbed or released during a phase change at constant temperature, e.g. fusion or vaporisation.
潜热 (L): 在恒定温度下相变时吸收或释放的热量，如熔解热或汽化热。
First law of thermodynamics: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed. The change in internal energy equals heat added minus work done: ΔU = Q – W.
热力学第一定律: 能量不生不灭，只能转换。内能变化等于吸热减做功：ΔU = Q – W。
Entropy (S): A measure of the disorder or randomness of a system. The second law states that the total entropy of an isolated system always increases.
熵 (S): 系统无序性或随机性的量度。第二定律表明孤立系统的总熵始终增加。
4. Fluid Mechanics | 流体力学
Pressure (p): The force exerted perpendicularly per unit area. p = F ÷ A, measured in pascals (Pa).
压强 (p): 垂直作用在单位面积上的力。p = F ÷ A，单位为帕斯卡 (Pa)。
Density (ρ): Mass per unit volume of a substance. ρ = m ÷ V, unit: kg m⁻³.
密度 (ρ): 物质单位体积的质量。ρ = m ÷ V，单位 kg m⁻³。
Viscosity: A fluid’s internal resistance to flow. Higher viscosity means slower flow under the same conditions.
粘度: 流体流动时的内部阻力，粘度越高，同条件下流动越慢。
Bernoulli’s principle: For an incompressible, inviscid fluid, an increase in velocity occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or potential energy.
p + ½ ρ v² + ρ g h = constant
伯努利原理: 对于不可压缩、无粘性流体，流速增加时，压力或势能同时减小。
Laminar flow: Smooth, orderly fluid motion in parallel layers with no mixing between them. Characterised by low Reynolds number.
层流: 流体平滑有序的分层运动，层间无混合，特征为低雷诺数。
Turbulent flow: Chaotic fluid motion with eddies and mixing. Occurs at high Reynolds numbers and increases energy losses.
湍流: 带有涡流和混合的混乱流态，出现在高雷诺数下，增加能量损失。
Reynolds number (Re): A dimensionless ratio used to predict flow regime: Re = ρ v L ÷ μ, where μ is dynamic viscosity.
雷诺数 (Re): 用于预测流态的无量纲比值：Re = ρ v L ÷ μ，其中 μ 为动力粘度。
5. Electrical Circuits | 电路
Current (I): The rate of flow of electric charge, measured in amperes (A). I = ΔQ ÷ Δt.
电流 (I): 电荷流动的速率，单位安培 (A)。I = ΔQ ÷ Δt。
Voltage (V): The electrical potential difference between two points, or the work done per unit charge, measured in volts (V).
电压 (V): 两点间的电势差，即单位电荷所做的功，单位伏特 (V)。
Resistance (R): The opposition to current flow in a conductor, determined by material, length, and cross-sectional area. R = ρ L ÷ A.
电阻 (R): 导体阻碍电流流动的性质，由材料、长度及截面积决定。R = ρ L ÷ A。
Ohm’s law: For a conductor at constant temperature, the current is directly proportional to the voltage across it.
V = I × R
欧姆定律: 在温度不变时，通过导体的电流与其两端的电压成正比。
Electrical power (P): The rate at which electrical energy is transferred. P = V × I = I² × R.
电功率 (P): 电能转换的速率。P = V × I = I² × R。
Kirchhoff’s laws: Current law: sum of currents entering a junction equals sum leaving. Voltage law: sum of emf’s equals sum of p.d. drops around a closed loop.
基尔霍夫定律: 电流定律：流入节点的电流之和等于流出之和。电压定律：回路中电动势之和等于各部分电压降之和。
Capacitance (C): The ability of a system to store charge per unit voltage. C = Q ÷ V, measured in farads (F).
电容 (C): 系统单位电压下储存电荷的能力。C = Q ÷ V，单位法拉 (F)。
6. Digital Systems | 数字系统
Logic gate: An electronic circuit with one or more inputs and a single output, performing a Boolean function (e.g. AND, OR, NOT).
逻辑门: 具有一个或多个输入和单一输出的电子电路，实现布尔函数（如与、或、非）。
Boolean algebra: An algebra of logic using binary variables (0 and 1) and operators such as AND (·), OR (+), and NOT (┬) to simplify expressions.
布尔代数: 使用二值变量 (0 和 1) 和运算符（与 ·、或 +、非 ┬）进行逻辑化简的代数系统。
Truth table: A tabular listing of all possible input combinations and the corresponding output for a logic circuit.
真值表: 列出逻辑电路所有可能输入组合及其对应输出的表格。
AND gate: Output is 1 only if all inputs are 1. Implements logical multiplication.
与门: 仅当所有输入均为 1 时输出为 1，实现逻辑乘。
OR gate: Output is 1 if at least one input is 1. Implements logical addition.
或门: 至少一个输入为 1 时输出为 1，实现逻辑加。
NOT gate (inverter): Output is the opposite of the single input. If input is 0, output is 1, and vice versa.
非门 (反相器): 输出为单一输入的反相。输入为 0 则输出 1，反之亦然。
Flip-flop: A bistable memory device that can store one bit of data. Changes state on a clock edge (e.g. D-type flip-flop).
触发器: 可存储 1 位数据的双稳态记忆元件，在时钟边沿改变状态（如 D 触发器）。
7. Systems and Control | 系统与控制
Open-loop system: A control system with no feedback; the output has no influence on the input. Simple but sensitive to disturbances.
开环系统: 无反馈的控制系统，输出不影响输入，结构简单但对扰动敏感。
Closed-loop system: A control system that uses feedback to compare the actual output with a desired setpoint and corrects errors automatically.
闭环系统: 利用反馈将实际输出与期望设定值进行比较并自动纠正误差的控制系统。
Feedback: The process of returning a portion of the output signal back to the input. Negative feedback stabilises a system.
反馈: 将部分输出信号送回输入端的过程。负反馈可稳定系统。
Transfer function: A mathematical model representing the relationship between the input and output of a linear time-invariant system, often in the Laplace domain.
传递函数: 表示线性时不变系统输入与输出关系的数学模型，常在拉普拉斯域表达。
Block diagram: A schematic representation of a control system using blocks to denote components and arrows to show signal flow.
框图: 使用方框表示组件、箭头表示信号流向的控制系统示意图。
Sensor: A device that detects a physical quantity (e.g. temperature, light) and converts it into an electrical signal.
传感器: 检测物理量（如温度、光）并将其转换为电信号的装置。
Actuator: A component that converts a control signal into mechanical motion or another physical action (e.g. motor, solenoid).
执行器: 将控制信号转换为机械运动或其他物理动作的组件（如电机、电磁铁）。
8. Kinematics and Dynamics | 运动学与动力学
Displacement (s): A vector quantity describing the change in position of an object in a particular direction.
位移 (s): 描述物体在特定方向上位置变化的矢量。
Velocity (v): The rate of change of displacement, a vector quantity measured in m s⁻¹.
速度 (v): 位移的变化率，为矢量，单位为 m s⁻¹。
Acceleration (a): The rate of change of velocity, measured in m s⁻². a = (v – u) ÷ t.
加速度 (a): 速度的变化率，
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