📚 KS3 CCEA Philosophy: Key Terminology & Quick-Reference Guide | KS3 CCEA 哲学：关键术语速记指南
This guide provides clear, easy-to-remember definitions of essential KS3 CCEA Philosophy vocabulary. Understanding these key terms will help you analyse arguments, discuss ethical dilemmas, explore big questions about reality, and develop your thinking skills.
本指南为 KS3 CCEA 哲学的核心词汇提供清晰、易记的定义。理解这些关键术语将有助于你分析论证、讨论伦理困境、探索关于实在的重大问题，并发展你的思维能力。
1. The Nature of Philosophy | 哲学的本质
Philosophy comes from the Greek words ‘philo’ (love) and ‘sophia’ (wisdom). It means ‘the love of wisdom’ and is the pursuit of fundamental truths about existence, knowledge, and values.
哲学源于希腊语“philo”（爱）和“sophia”（智慧），意思是“爱智”，即对关于存在、知识和价值的根本真理的探求。
A philosopher does not simply accept things at face value; they question, analyse, and construct reasoned arguments to gain deeper understanding.
哲学家不会只看表面就接受事物；他们会提问、分析，并构建理性的论证来获得更深的理解。
Critical thinking is the core skill in philosophy. It involves thinking clearly and rationally, understanding the logical connection between ideas, and identifying, constructing and evaluating arguments.
批判性思维是哲学的核心技能。它包括清晰、理性地思考，理解观点之间的逻辑联系，以及识别、构建和评估论证。
Logic is the study of correct reasoning. It provides tools to distinguish good arguments from bad ones, using principles like validity and soundness.
逻辑学是研究正确推理的学科。它提供工具来区分好的论证与坏的论证，运用有效性和可靠性等原则。
2. Arguments and Reasoning | 论证与推理
An argument in philosophy is not a heated dispute but a set of statements where some (premises) are given as reasons to support another statement (the conclusion).
哲学中的论证不是激烈的争吵，而是一组陈述，其中一些陈述（前提）被用作支持另一陈述（结论）的理由。
Reasoning is the mental process of drawing conclusions from premises. It can be explicit, as in a debate, or implicit, as when we make everyday decisions.
推理是从前提得出结论的思维过程。它可以很明确，如在辩论中，也可以是隐性的，如我们做日常决定时。
Evidence in philosophy often takes the form of observations, shared intuitions, or logical principles, rather than scientific experiments alone.
哲学中的证据通常采取观察、共同的直觉或逻辑原则的形式，而不仅仅是科学实验。
An assertion is a statement presented as fact without supporting reasoning. In philosophy, we want to go beyond assertions and build justified claims.
断言是作为事实提出但没有支撑推理的陈述。在哲学中，我们要超越断言，建立有正当理由的主张。
3. Premises and Conclusions | 前提与结论
A premise is a statement that provides a reason or support for the conclusion in an argument. Arguments can have one or several premises.
前提是在论证中为结论提供理由或支持的陈述。论证可以有一个或多个前提。
The conclusion is the statement that the arguer wants the audience to accept, based on the premises provided.
结论是论证者希望听众基于所提供的前提而接受的陈述。
Good arguments are structured so that if the premises are true, the conclusion is likely or must be true. We call this a ‘valid’ or ‘strong’ structure.
好的论证其结构使得如果前提为真，结论就可能为真或必然为真。我们称之为“有效”或“有力”的结构。
An enthymeme is an argument with an unstated premise or conclusion that is implicitly assumed. Learning to spot these sharpens your analytical skills.
省略三段论是一种省略了隐含的前提出的论证。学会发现这些隐含前提能提高你的分析技能。
4. Deductive and Inductive Arguments | 演绎与归纳论证
Deduction is a form of reasoning where the conclusion necessarily follows from the premises. If the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false.
演绎是一种推理形式，结论必然从前提推出。如果前提为真，结论就不可能为假。
Example: All humans are mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
示例：所有人都会死。苏格拉底是人。所以，苏格拉底会死。
Induction involves reasoning from specific observations to general conclusions, but the conclusion is not guaranteed. It is probabilistic and often used in science.
归纳是从具体观察推出一般性结论的推理方式，但结论并不必然为真。它是概然性的，常用于科学。
Example: The sun has risen every day in recorded history. Therefore, the sun will rise tomorrow.
示例：有史记载以来太阳每天都升起。所以，太阳明天将继续升起。
Abduction is reasoning to the best explanation. We take a surprising fact and infer the most likely cause, though it may not be the only possible one.
溯因是推出最佳解释的推理。我们接受一个令人惊讶的事实，推断最可能的原因，尽管它可能不是唯一可能的原因。
5. Validity, Soundness and Strength | 有效性、可靠性与强度
Validity applies only to deductive arguments. An argument is valid if the conclusion logically follows from the premises — it has a correct logical form.
有效性仅适用于演绎论证。如果结论在逻辑上能从前提推出——即具有正确的逻辑形式——那么论证就是有效的。
Soundness requires a valid argument with all premises actually true. A sound argument guarantees a true conclusion.
可靠性要求论证不仅有效，而且所有前提实际上为真。一个可靠的论证能确保结论为真。
Strength and cogency are used for inductive arguments. A strong argument makes the conclusion highly probable if the premises are true. It is cogent if it is strong and all premises are actually true.
强度和说服力用于归纳论证。一个有力的论证使结论在前提为真的情况下高度概然。如果有力且所有前提确实为真，则它是有说服力的。
Logical form can be represented symbolically, such as Modus Ponens: If P → Q, and P, then Q.
逻辑形式可以用符号表示，例如肯定前件式：如果 P → Q，且 P，则 Q。
6. Common Logical Fallacies | 常见逻辑谬误
A fallacy is a flaw in reasoning that weakens an argument. Fallacies can be formal (errors in logical structure) or informal (errors in content or language).
谬误是推理中的缺陷，会削弱论证。谬误可能是形式上的（逻辑结构错误）或非形式上的（内容或语言错误）。
The ad hominem fallacy attacks the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument itself.
人身攻击谬误不是针对论证本身，而是攻击提出论证的人。
The straw man fallacy misrepresents an opponent’s position to make it easier to attack, often by exaggerating or simplifying it.
稻草人谬误通过歪曲对方的立场（通常是夸大或简化），使其更容易攻击。
The false dichotomy presents a situation as having only two options, when in fact more options exist. For example, ‘You are either with us or against us.’
虚假二分将情况描述为只有两种选择，而实际上存在更多选项。例如，“你要么支持我们，要么反对我们。”
The appeal to ignorance argues that a claim is true because it has not been proven false, or vice versa.
诉诸无知谬误主张某个断言为真，因为尚未证明它为假，反之亦然。
7. Ethics: Moral Philosophy | 伦理学：道德哲学
Ethics is the branch of philosophy that explores concepts of right and wrong, good and bad, and how we ought to live.
伦理学是哲学的一个分支，探讨对与错、善与恶以及我们应当如何生活的概念。
Moral relativism is the view that moral judgements are true or false only relative to a particular culture, society, or individual standpoint.
道德相对主义认为，道德判断的真假只是相对于特定的文化、社会或个人立场而言的。
Utilitarianism is a consequentialist theory that says the morally right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
功利主义是一种后果论，认为道德上正确的行为是为最多的人带来最大幸福的行为。
Deontology, associated with Kant, holds that some actions are morally obligatory, regardless of their consequences, based on duties and rules.
义务论，与康德相关，认为某些行为在道德上是必须的，不论后果如何，基于义务和规则。
Virtue ethics focuses on the character of the moral agent rather than specific actions or consequences, asking what a virtuous person would do.
美德伦理学关注道德主体的品格，而非具体行为或后果，探讨一个有德之人会如何做。
8. Metaphysics: What is Real? | 形而上学：什么是真实？
Metaphysics examines the fundamental nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and matter, substance and attribute, and potentiality and actuality.
形而上学考察实在的基本性质，包括心灵与物质、实体与属性、潜能与现实之间的关系。
Ontology is a sub-branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature of being, existence, and the categories of things that exist.
本体论是形而上学的一个分支，关注存在、实存的性质以及存在物的范畴。
Dualism is the view that the mind and the body are fundamentally distinct kinds of substances — mental and physical. Descartes famously defended this position.
二元论认为心灵和身体是根本不同的实体——精神实体和物理实体。笛卡儿以捍卫这一立场而闻名。
Materialism or physicalism claims that everything that exists is ultimately physical or material. There is no non-physical soul or spirit.
唯物主义或物理主义声称，一切存在的东西最终都是物理的或物质的。不存在非物质性的灵魂或精神。
Realism and anti-realism debate whether certain types of things (such as numbers, moral values, or the past) exist independently of our minds or perceptions.
实在论与反实在论争论某些类型的事物（如数字、道德价值或过去）是否独立于我们的心灵或知觉而存在。
9. Epistemology: How Do We Know? | 认识论：我们如何知道？
Epistemology is the study of knowledge, belief, and justification. It asks what knowledge is, how we acquire it, and what we really know.
认识论是研究知识、信念和辩护的学问。它追问知识是什么、我们如何获取知识，以及我们真正知道什么。
The traditional definition of knowledge is ‘justified true belief’. You know something if you believe it, it is true, and you have good reasons for believing it.
知识的传统定义是“被辩护的真信念”。你如果相信某事，它是真的，并且你有很好的理由相信它，那么你就知道它。
Empiricism argues that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience. John Locke compared the mind at birth to a blank slate (tabula rasa).
经验主义认为知识主要来自感官经验。洛克将人生之初的心灵比作一块白板。
Rationalism emphasises reason as the primary source of knowledge, holding that some truths can be known independently of experience, such as mathematical truths.
理性主义强调理性是知识的主要来源，认为某些真理可以独立于经验而被认识，比如数学真理。
Scepticism is the position that challenges our ability to have certain knowledge. A radical sceptic might claim we cannot know anything about the external world.
怀疑论是挑战我们获得确定知识之能力的立场。一个彻底的怀疑论者可能会声称我们无法知道外部世界的任何事情。
10. Philosophy of Religion: God and The Problem of Evil | 宗教哲学：上帝与恶的问题
Philosophy of religion explores questions about the existence and nature of God, the problem of evil, religious experience, and the relationship between faith and reason.
宗教哲学探讨关于上帝存在和本质、恶的问题、宗教经验以及信仰与理性之间关系的问题。
Theism is the belief in the existence of a God or gods who are involved in the world. Monotheism (one God) and polytheism (many gods) are varieties of theism.
有神论是相信存在一位或多位干预世界的上帝或神。一神论和多神论是有神论的变体。
Atheism is the lack of belief in any gods, while agnosticism holds that it is impossible to know whether or not God exists.
无神论是不信任何神，而不可知论认为不可能知道上帝是否存在。
The cosmological argument uses the existence of the universe to argue for the existence of God as the first cause or necessary being. The Kalam version asks, ‘Whatever begins to exist has a cause.’
宇宙论论证用宇宙的存在来论证上帝作为第一因或必然存在的存在。卡拉姆版本问：“一切开始存在的东西都有其原因。”
The problem of evil questions how an all-powerful, all-knowing, and all-good God can allow suffering. The logical problem argues that such a God is incompatible with any evil existing.
恶的问题质疑一位全能、全知、全善的上帝如何能容许苦难存在。逻辑恶的问题论证，这样一位上帝与任何恶的存在不相容。
11. Mind and Body | 心灵与身体
The mind-body problem asks how our mental states (thoughts, feelings, consciousness) relate to our physical brain and body.
心身问题追问我们的心理状态（思想、感受、意识）如何与我们的物理大脑和身体相关联。
Property dualism accepts that everything is made of physical stuff, but argues that mental properties are distinct from physical properties and cannot be fully explained by them.
属性二元论接受万物都由物理材料构成，但主张心理属性与物理属性不同，不能用物理属性完全解释。
Functionalism defines mental states by their causal roles — what they do rather than what they are made of. For example, pain is whatever state plays the ‘pain role’.
功能主义通过因果角色来定义心理状态——即它们做什么，而不是由什么构成。例如，痛就是扮演“痛的角色”的任何状态。
The ‘hard problem of consciousness’, coined by David Chalmers, asks why and how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective, qualitative experience (qualia).
“意识的困难问题”（由大卫·查尔默斯提出），问的是为什么以及如何脑中物理过程能够产生主观的、质性的体验（感受质）。
12. Free Will and Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action unimpeded. It is central to our understanding of moral responsibility.
自由意志是能够不受阻碍地在不同可能的行动进程之间进行选择的能力。它是我们理解道德责任的核心。
Determinism is the thesis that every event, including human choices, is causally determined by prior events and the laws of nature.
决定论是一种论题，认为每个事件，包括人类的选择，都是由先前事件和自然法则因果决定的。
Compatibilism (soft determinism) argues that free will and determinism are compatible. Free will just means acting according to your own desires and intentions, without external coercion.
相容论（温和决定论）主张自由意志与决定论是相容的。自由意志仅仅是按照你自己的欲望和意图行动，不受外部强制。
Libertarianism (in the free will debate) insists that we have free will and this requires indeterminism — some events, including our choices, are not fully determined by the past.
意志自由主义（在自由意志争论中）坚持我们拥有自由意志，且这要求非决定论——某些事件，包括我们的选择，不完全由过去决定。
Moral responsibility is closely linked: if we cannot choose to do otherwise, some argue we cannot be praised or blamed for our actions.
道德责任与此紧密相连：如果无法选择别的做法，一些人认为我们就不能因自己的行为而受到赞扬或责备。
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