📚 KS3 Edexcel Psychology: Quick Reference to Formulas & Principles | KS3 Edexcel 心理学：公式定理速查手册
This handbook collects the essential ‘formulas’ and principles you need to know for KS3 Edexcel Psychology. In psychology, formulas are not just mathematical equations; they include research method definitions, ethical guidelines, memory models, conditioning relationships, and key theories expressed as logical links. Use this guide to revise the building blocks of psychological explanation, data handling, and experimental design.
本手册汇集了KS3 Edexcel心理学所需掌握的核心“公式”和原理。在心理学中，公式不仅仅是数学方程，还包括研究方法定义、伦理准则、记忆模型、条件作用关系以及以逻辑链呈现的关键理论。请使用本指南复习心理学解释、数据处理和实验设计的基础模块。
1. Mean, Median, Mode & Range | 平均数、中位数、众数和极差
The mean is calculated by adding all scores and dividing by the number of scores. It is the most sensitive measure of central tendency but can be distorted by outliers. Use the formula: Mean = Sum of all values / Number of values.
平均数通过将所有分数相加再除以分数个数来计算。它是最灵敏的集中趋势量数，但容易被异常值扭曲。使用公式：平均数 = 所有数值的总和 ÷ 数值的个数。
The median is the middle value when scores are arranged in order. If there are two middle numbers, take their average. The median is not affected by extreme scores, making it useful for skewed data.
中位数是将分数按顺序排列后位于中间的值。如果中间有两个数，则取它们的平均值。中位数不受极端分数的影响，因此适用于偏态数据。
The mode is the most frequently occurring score. A data set can have one mode (unimodal), two (bimodal), or more. The mode is the only measure suitable for nominal (category) data.
众数是出现频率最高的分数。一组数据可以有一个众数（单峰）、两个众数（双峰）或更多。众数是唯一适合称名（类别）数据的量数。
The range is the difference between the highest and lowest scores: Range = Highest value – Lowest value. It gives a quick idea of data spread but ignores how values cluster.
极差是最高分与最低分之间的差值：极差 = 最大值 – 最小值。它能快速反映数据分散程度，但忽略了数值的聚集方式。
2. Percentage & Ratio Calculations | 百分比与比率计算
To express a score as a percentage, use: Percentage = (Part / Whole) × 100. For example, if 18 out of 30 participants recalled a word, the percentage recall is (18/30) × 100 = 60%.
将分数表示为百分比：百分比 = (部分 / 整体) × 100。例如，如果30名参与者中有18人回忆出一个词，回忆百分比为 (18/30) × 100 = 60%。
A ratio compares two quantities. It is written as A:B or A to B. To simplify, divide both sides by the greatest common divisor. For instance, a gender split of 12 females and 8 males gives a ratio of 12:8, which simplifies to 3:2.
比率比较两个数量，写作 A:B 或 A 比 B。化简时可两边同时除以最大公约数。例如，性别分布为12名女性与8名男性，比率为12:8，化简为3:2。
Percentage change is handy when comparing before-and-after scores: % Change = ((New value – Old value) / Old value) × 100. A positive result indicates an increase; a negative one indicates a decrease.
百分比变化在比较前后分数时很有用：% 变化 = ((新值 – 旧值) / 旧值) × 100。正数表示增加，负数表示减少。
3. Ethical Principles BPS | 英国心理学会伦理准则
The British Psychological Society (BPS) sets out a ‘formula’ of ethics that every study must follow. The key principles form an acronym: C-onsent, D-eception, R-ight to withdraw, P-rotection from harm, P-rivacy and C-onfidentiality (CDRPPC).
英国心理学会（BPS）制定了一套所有研究必须遵循的伦理“公式”。核心原则形成一个缩写：知情同意（Consent）、欺骗（Deception）、退出权（Right to withdraw）、免受伤害（Protection from harm）、隐私与保密（Privacy and Confidentiality）。
Informed consent means participants must know the aim and procedures and agree to take part. For under-16s, parental consent is required. A consent form records this agreement.
知情同意意味着参与者必须知晓研究目的和程序并同意参加。对于16岁以下者，需获得家长同意。知情同意书记录这一同意。
Deception should be avoided, but if necessary it must be justified and followed by a full debrief. Debrief involves revealing the true aim and restoring the participant’s emotional state.
应避免欺骗；若必要，则必须有充分理由并在事后进行完整的事后解说。事后解说指告知真实目的并恢复参与者的情绪状态。
The right to withdraw allows participants to leave at any time without penalty. Their data must be removed if requested. Protection from harm ensures psychological and physical safety.
退出权允许参与者随时退出且不受惩罚。若请求，其数据必须被移除。免受伤害原则确保心理与生理安全。
Privacy means observations should take place only in public settings where people expect to be seen. Confidentiality requires that personal details are anonymised, often using codes or pseudonyms.
隐私指观察应在人们预期会被看到的公共场所进行。保密要求个人信息匿名化，通常使用代码或化名。
4. Memory Models: Multi-Store Model (Atkinson & Shiffrin) | 记忆模型：多存储模型（Atkinson与Shiffrin）
The multi-store model can be summarised as a sequence: Sensory Register → Attention → Short-Term Memory → Rehearsal → Long-Term Memory. Information not rehearsed is forgotten via decay or displacement.
多存储模型可总结为一个序列：感觉登记器→注意→短时记忆→复述→长时记忆。未被复述的信息会因消退或干扰而被遗忘。
Sensory register has a large capacity but very brief duration (milliseconds to seconds). Iconic memory (visual) lasts about 0.5 seconds; echoic memory (auditory) lasts 2-3 seconds.
感觉登记器容量很大，但持续时间极短（毫秒至秒）。图像记忆（视觉）约持续0.5秒；声像记忆（听觉）持续2-3秒。
Short-term memory (STM) has a capacity of 7±2 chunks, with a duration of approximately 18-30 seconds without rehearsal. Coding in STM is primarily acoustic (sound-based).
短时记忆的容量为7±2个组块，无复述时持续时间约18-30秒。短时记忆的编码主要是听觉编码（基于声音）。
Long-term memory (LTM) is thought to have unlimited capacity and can last a lifetime. Coding in LTM is semantic (meaning-based). The principle ‘rehearsal transfers information from STM to LTM’ works like a formula for consolidation.
长时记忆被认为是无限容量，可维持一生。长时记忆的编码为语义编码（基于意义）。原理“复述将信息从短时记忆转移到长时记忆”就像一个巩固的公式。
5. Classical Conditioning: UCS, UCR, NS, CS, CR | 经典条件作用：非条件刺激、非条件反应、中性刺激、条件刺激、条件反应
Pavlov’s classical conditioning follows a fixed sequence. The formula is: Before conditioning: UCS → UCR (natural reflex). NS → no relevant response. During conditioning: NS + UCS → UCR. After conditioning: CS (formerly NS) → CR.
巴甫洛夫的经典条件作用遵循固定序列。公式为：条件作用前：非条件刺激→非条件反应（自然反射）。中性刺激→无相关反应。条件作用期间：中性刺激 + 非条件刺激 → 非条件反应。条件作用后：条件刺激（原中性刺激）→ 条件反应。
Key definitions: Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally triggers a response (e.g., food). Unconditioned Response (UCR) is the natural reflex (e.g., salivation). Neutral Stimulus (NS) initially produces no relevant response (e.g., bell). After pairing, the NS becomes the Conditioned Stimulus (CS), and the learned response is the Conditioned Response (CR).
关键定义：非条件刺激是自然引发反应的刺激（如食物）。非条件反应是自然反射（如唾液分泌）。中性刺激最初不产生相关反应（如铃声）。经过配对后，中性刺激变为条件刺激，习得的反应即为条件反应。
Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS, and the CR weakens. Spontaneous recovery is the sudden reappearance of the CR after a resting period.
消退发生在条件刺激反复呈现而无非条件刺激时，条件反应减弱。自然恢复指休息一段时间后条件反应突然再次出现。
6. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement & Punishment | 操作性条件作用：强化与惩罚
Skinner’s operant conditioning is ruled by consequences. The core ‘formula’ states: Behaviour that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated (reinforcement); behaviour followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated (punishment).
斯金纳的操作性条件作用受结果支配。核心“公式”为：带来愉快结果的行为更可能被重复（强化）；带来不愉快结果的行为则不太可能被重复（惩罚）。
Positive reinforcement: adding a pleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., giving a sticker for completing homework). Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase behaviour (e.g., turning off a loud alarm when you fasten your seatbelt).
正强化：增加愉快刺激以增加行为（如完成作业给予贴纸）。负强化：移除不愉快刺激以增加行为（如系上安全带后刺耳警报停止）。
Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour (e.g., scolding). Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease behaviour (e.g., taking away a phone).
正惩罚：增加不愉快刺激以减少行为（如责骂）。负惩罚：移除愉快刺激以减少行为（如没收手机）。
Schedules of reinforcement affect learning speed and extinction. Continuous reinforcement (reward every time) leads to fast acquisition but fast extinction. Partial reinforcement (reward only some of the time) leads to slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
强化程序影响学习速度和消退。连续强化（每次都奖励）导致快速习得但消退快。部分强化（只偶尔奖励）导致习得慢但更抗消退。
7. Social Influence: Conformity & Obedience Factors | 社会影响：从众与服从因素
Conformity is a change in behaviour or belief to fit in with a group. The Asch effect demonstrated that group size, unanimity, and task difficulty affect conformity rates. Asch’s formula: Conformity pressure = (majority influence) when the individual feels uncertain or outnumbered.
从众是为融入群体而改变行为或信念。阿希效应表明，群体规模、一致性和任务难度会影响从众率。阿希公式：当个体感到不确定或寡不敌众时，从众压力 = （多数人影响）。
Obedience is following direct orders from an authority figure. Milgram’s research highlighted factors influencing obedience: proximity of authority, prestige of the institution, proximity of victim, and presence of disobedient peers. The agentic state theory explains that people shift responsibility to the authority figure.
服从是听从权威人物的直接命令。米尔格拉姆研究揭示了影响服从的因素：权威接近度、机构声望、受害者接近度以及不服从同伴的存在。代理状态理论解释为人们将责任转移给权威人物。
Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to put in less effort when working in a group. The formula: Individual effort decreases when accountability is diffused. Deindividuation occurs in crowds where anonymity reduces self-awareness and increases impulsive behaviour.
社会懈怠是个体在群体中工作时努力减少的倾向。公式：当责任被分散时，个体努力下降。去个性化发生在人群中，匿名性降低自我意识并增加冲动行为。
8. Research Methods: IV, DV, Hypothesis | 研究方法：自变量、因变量、假设
In experiments, variables are the core ‘formula’ elements. The Independent Variable (IV) is the factor the researcher manipulates or changes. The Dependent Variable (DV) is the factor measured or observed. Everything else should be controlled (control variables).
在实验中，变量是核心“公式”元素。自变量是研究者操纵或改变的因素。因变量是测量或观察的因素。其余因素都应控制（控制变量）。
Operationalisation means clearly defining how the IV and DV are measured or manipulated. For example, ‘IV: whether participants drink 200 ml of water or not; DV: reaction time in milliseconds on a computer task’. Without operationalisation, studies cannot be replicated.
操作化指清晰界定如何测量或操纵自变量和因变量。例如，“自变量：参与者是否饮用200毫升水；因变量：在电脑任务中的反应时（毫秒）”。没有操作化，研究无法被重复验证。
Hypotheses: An experimental (alternative) hypothesis predicts a difference or relationship. A directional (one-tailed) hypothesis states the expected direction, e.g., ‘Participants who drink water will have faster reaction times than those who do not.’ A non-directional (two-tailed) hypothesis does not specify direction: ‘There will be a difference in reaction time between those who drink water and those who do not.’
假设：实验假设（备择假设）预测差异或关系。方向性（单尾）假设指出预期方向，如“喝水参与者的反应时会比不喝水者更快”。非方向性（双尾）假设不指定方向：“喝水与不喝水参与者的反应时存在差异”。
The null hypothesis states there will be no difference or relationship, which is assumed true until statistical analysis suggests otherwise.
零假设陈述不存在差异或关系，在统计分析表明相反之前假定为真。
9. Sampling Methods | 抽样方法
A sample is a subset of the target population. The ‘formula’ for a representative sample is one that mirrors the population in key characteristics. Common methods include opportunity, random, stratified, systematic, and volunteer sampling.
样本是目标总体的一个子集。代表性样本的“公式”是在关键特征上反映总体。常见方法包括机会抽样、随机抽样、分层抽样、系统抽样和志愿抽样。
Opportunity sampling selects whoever is available and willing. It is quick and easy but often biased. Random sampling gives every population member an equal chance; it is less biased but can be impractical. Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups (strata) and randomly selects from each in proportion, which improves representativeness.
机会抽样选取任何可用且愿意的人。快速简便但常有偏差。随机抽样使每个总体成员有均等机会；偏差较小但可能不切实际。分层抽样将总体划分为子群（层），从每层按比例随机抽取，提高代表性。
Systematic sampling selects every nth person from a list. Volunteer sampling relies on people responding to an advert; it tends to attract a certain type of participant, causing volunteer bias.
系统抽样从名单中每隔n人抽取一个。志愿抽样依赖人们对广告的回应；容易吸引特定类型的参与者，造成志愿者偏差。
10. Data Types: Qualitative vs Quantitative | 数据类型：定性与定量
Quantitative data is numerical and deals with ‘how much’. It is analysed using descriptive statistics like mean, median, mode, range, and graphs. Qualitative data is non-numerical and deals with ‘why’ and ‘how’; it includes thoughts, feelings, and descriptions, analysed through thematic analysis or content analysis.
定量数据是数值性的，处理“多少”的问题。使用平均数、中位数、众数、极差等描述性统计和图进行分析。定性数据是非数值性的，处理“为什么”和“怎样”的问题；包括想法、感受和描述，通过主题分析或内容分析来进行分析。
Primary data is collected first-hand by the researcher. Secondary data already exists (e.g., census data, previous studies). A meta-analysis combines statistical results from many studies to produce an overall effect size.
一手数据由研究者亲手收集。二手数据已经存在（如人口普查数据、以往研究）。元分析整合多项研究的统计结果，得出一个整体效应量。
Reliability refers to consistency. If a study and its measures can be repeated to yield similar results, it has high reliability. Validity refers to accuracy, whether the study measures what it claims to measure. Internal validity considers whether the IV truly caused changes in the DV; external validity is about generalisability beyond the study setting.
信度指一致性。若研究及其测量可重复并得出相似结果，则信度高。效度指准确性，即研究是否测量了它所声称要测量的东西。内部效度考量自变量是否真正引起因变量变化；外部效度关乎研究情境之外的推广度。
11. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development describes how thinking ‘formulas’ change with age. The four stages are: Sensorimotor (0-2 years), Preoperational (2-7 years), Concrete Operational (7-11 years), and Formal Operational (11+ years).
皮亚杰的认知发展理论描述了思维“公式”如何随年龄变化。四个阶段为：感知运动阶段（0-2岁）、前运算阶段（2-7岁）、具体运算阶段（7-11岁）和形式运算阶段（11岁以上）。
In the sensorimotor stage, the key achievement is object permanence: understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight. The preoperational stage features egocentrism (seeing the world only from one’s own viewpoint) and animism (believing objects are alive).
在感知运动阶段，关键成就是客体永久性：理解物体在视线之外时依然存在。前运算阶段的特点是自我中心主义（只从自身视角看世界）和泛灵论（认为物体有生命）。
Concrete operational children master conservation (quantity remains the same despite changes in appearance), reversibility, and classification. Formal operational thinking involves abstract reasoning, systematic problem-solving, and hypothetical-deductive logic. Not all individuals reach this stage consistently.
具体运算阶段的儿童掌握守恒（数量不因外观变化而改变）、可逆性和分类。形式运算思维涉及抽象推理、系统性假设检验和假设-演绎逻辑。并非所有人都能稳定达到这一阶段。
12. Key Study Summaries (Bartlett, Milgram, Loftus & Palmer) | 关键研究摘要
Bartlett’s ‘War of the Ghosts’ study (1932) demonstrated that memory is reconstructive. English participants read a Native American story and recalled it at intervals. The formula: Recall + schemas → distortions. Omissions, rationalisation, and confabulation occurred as participants shaped the story to fit their cultural schemas.
巴特利特的“幽灵之战”研究（1932）证明了记忆是重构性的。英国参与者阅读一个美洲原住民故事，并在间隔后回忆。公式：回忆 + 图式 → 扭曲。参与者为使故事符合自己的文化图式，出现了遗漏、合理化和虚构。
Milgram’s obedience study (1963) used a shock generator with increments from 15 to 450 volts. 65% of participants delivered the maximum shock. Factors affecting obedience: proximity of the learner, authority of the experimenter, and location (Yale University vs. run-down office).
米尔格拉姆的服从研究（1963）使用了一个从15伏到450伏的电击发生器。65%的参与者实施了最大电击。影响服从的因素有：学习者接近度、实验者权威性和地点（耶鲁大学与破旧办公室）。
Loftus and Palmer (1974) demonstrated the effect of leading questions on memory. Participants watched car crash films and were asked about speed using different verbs. The formula: Verb intensity (smashed, hit) → higher speed estimates and false memories of broken glass. This shows memory distortion through post-event information.
洛夫特斯和帕尔默（1974）证明了引导性问题对记忆的影响。参与者观看车祸影片，并被用不同的动词询问车速。公式：动词强度（撞击、碰撞）→ 更高的速度估计和关于碎玻璃的虚假记忆。这显示了事后信息对记忆的扭曲。
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