KS3 WJEC Psychology: Quick Reference Handbook for Formulas and Theorems | KS3 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册

📚 KS3 WJEC Psychology: Quick Reference Handbook for Formulas and Theorems | KS3 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册

This handbook provides a concise reference for the essential formulas, models, and statistical concepts covered in the KS3 WJEC Psychology course. Understanding these tools will help you analyse data, explain psychological processes, and succeed in your assessments.

本手册为 KS3 WJEC 心理学课程中的基本公式、模型和统计概念提供简明参考。掌握这些工具有助于分析数据、解释心理过程并在考核中取得成功。

1. Mean, Median, Mode and Range | 平均数、中位数、众数和极差

These are measures of central tendency and dispersion. The mean is the arithmetic average, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values. The median is the middle value when data are ordered. The mode is the most frequently occurring value. The range describes spread, found by subtracting the smallest value from the largest.

这些统计量用于描述数据的集中趋势与离散程度。平均数（均值）是所有数值之和除以个数。中位数是将数据按顺序排列后位于中间的值。众数是出现次数最多的数值。极差反映离散程度，用最大值减去最小值得到。

Mean = Sum of all values ÷ Number of values

Range = Highest value − Lowest value

Example: Data set 3, 7, 7, 9, 12, 14. Mean = (3+7+7+9+12+14) ÷ 6 = 8.67; Median = (7+9) ÷ 2 = 8; Mode = 7; Range = 14 − 3 = 11.

示例：数据组 3, 7, 7, 9, 12, 14。平均数 = (3+7+7+9+12+14) ÷ 6 = 8.67；中位数 = (7+9) ÷ 2 = 8；众数 = 7；极差 = 14 − 3 = 11。

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2. Percentage Change | 百分比变化

Percentage change shows the relative increase or decrease between two values, such as before and after an experiment. It is useful for comparing results across different conditions or groups.

百分比变化表示两个数值（如实验前后）之间的相对增减情况，便于比较不同条件或组别的结果。

Percentage Change = (New Value − Old Value) ÷ Old Value × 100%

If a participant’s memory score improved from 15 to 21, the percentage increase = (21 − 15) ÷ 15 × 100 = 40%.

若某参与者的记忆分数从 15 提高到 21，则百分比增加 = (21 − 15) ÷ 15 × 100 = 40%。

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3. Ratio Calculations | 比率计算

Ratios express the relationship between two quantities. In psychology experiments, they can compare the number of participants in an experimental group to a control group. The ratio is simplified by dividing both numbers by their greatest common divisor.

比率表示两个量之间的关系。在心理学实验中，可用来比较实验组与对照组的人数。通过除以最大公约数来化简比率。

If 20 participants are in Condition A and 10 in Condition B, the ratio A:B = 20:10, which simplifies to 2:1.

若条件A有20名参与者，条件B有10名参与者，则 A:B 比率为 20:10，化简为 2:1。

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4. The Multi-Store Model of Memory Formula | 记忆多存储模型公式

The Atkinson-Shiffrin model describes memory as information flowing through three stores. Information must pass through specific processes to move to the next store.

阿特金森-谢夫林模型将记忆描述为信息流经三个存储系统，必须经过特定过程才能转入下一级存储。

Sensory Memory → (attention) → Short-Term Memory (STM) → (rehearsal) → Long-Term Memory (LTM)

感觉记忆 →（注意）→ 短时记忆 →（复述）→ 长时记忆

Without attention, sensory information decays rapidly. Without rehearsal, STM is lost through displacement or decay. Information in LTM can be retrieved back into STM for use.

若无注意，感觉信息迅速消退。若无复述，短时记忆会因干扰或消退而丢失。长时记忆中的信息可被提取回短时记忆以供使用。

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5. The Forgetting Curve (Ebbinghaus) | 遗忘曲线（艾宾浩斯）

Hermann Ebbinghaus studied how memory fades over time. He found that forgetting is rapid at first, then levels off. The following table shows typical retention percentages for nonsense syllables.

赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯研究了记忆随时间消退的规律。他发现遗忘起初很快，随后趋于平缓。下表列出对无意义音节的典型保持百分比。

Time Since Learning	Memory Retained (%)	学习间隔时间	记忆保持（%）
Immediately	100	即时	100
20 minutes	58	20 分钟	58
1 hour	44	1 小时	44
1 day	33	1 天	33
6 days	25	6 天	25

The curve demonstrates that most forgetting occurs within the first hour. Regular revision interrupts this decay and strengthens long-term retention.

曲线表明大部分遗忘发生在头一个小时内。定期复习可打断遗忘进程并加强长时记忆的保持。

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6. Classical Conditioning Formula | 经典条件反射公式

Pavlov’s learning theory can be summarised as a sequence of stimulus-response links. Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus naturally produces an unconditioned response. During conditioning, a neutral stimulus is paired repeatedly with the unconditioned stimulus. After conditioning, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus and elicits a conditioned response.

巴甫洛夫的学习理论可概括为一系列刺激-反应联结。条件化之前，无条件刺激自然引发无条件反应。在条件化过程中，中性刺激与无条件刺激反复配对。之后，中性刺激变为条件刺激，引发条件反应。

Step 1 (Before): UCS → UCR (e.g., food → salivation)

Step 2 (During): NS + UCS → UCR (bell + food → salivation)

Step 3 (After): CS → CR (bell → salivation)

第1步（前）： 无条件刺激 UCS → 无条件反应 UCR（如食物 → 唾液分泌）

第2步（期间）： 中性刺激 NS + 无条件刺激 UCS → 无条件反应 UCR（铃声 + 食物 → 唾液分泌）

第3步（后）： 条件刺激 CS → 条件反应 CR（铃声 → 唾液分泌）

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7. Operant Conditioning Formula | 操作性条件反射公式

Skinner’s theory states that voluntary behaviour is shaped by its consequences. The relationship can be expressed as a behavioural formula.

斯金纳的理论认为自主行为由其后果塑造。这种关系可用行为公式表达。

Behaviour → Consequence → Effect on Future Behaviour

行为 → 后果 → 对未来行为的影响

• Positive reinforcement (add pleasant stimulus) increases behaviour; e.g., praise → student studies more.

  正向强化（加入愉快刺激）增加行为；例如表扬 → 学生更努力学习。

• Negative reinforcement (remove unpleasant stimulus) increases behaviour; e.g., taking painkiller to remove headache → more likely to take painkiller again.

  负向强化（移除厌恶刺激）增加行为；如服用止痛药消除头痛 → 更可能再次服药。

• Positive punishment (add unpleasant stimulus) decreases behaviour; e.g., scolding → reduces running in class.

  正向惩罚（加入厌恶刺激）减少行为；如批评 → 减少课堂上奔跑。

• Negative punishment (remove pleasant stimulus) decreases behaviour; e.g., confiscating phone → less phone use.

  负向惩罚（移除愉快刺激）减少行为；如没收手机 → 减少使用手机。

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8. Cognitive Appraisal of Stress (Lazarus) | 压力的认知评估（拉扎勒斯）

Lazarus’s transactional model suggests stress is not just an external event, but a result of how we appraise a situation. The stress response depends on two appraisal stages.

拉扎勒斯的交互模型认为压力不只源于外部事件，更取决于我们如何评估情境。压力反应取决于两个评估阶段。

Primary appraisal: ‘Is this situation threatening to my well-being?’ If ‘yes’, we may experience stress.

次级评价：“我是否有足够的资源应对？”若资源不足，压力感更强。

Secondary appraisal: ‘Do I have the resources to cope?’ If resources are insufficient, stress intensifies.

初级评价：“这个情境是否威胁我的幸福？”若判断为“是”，则可能产生压力。

The formula can be summarised as: Stress = Threat Perception + Inadequate Coping Resources.

这一过程可概括为：压力 = 威胁感知 + 应对资源不足。

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9. Correlation Interpretation | 相关解释

Correlation describes the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. A correlation coefficient, denoted as r, ranges from −1 to +1. The sign indicates direction, and the number indicates strength.

相关描述两个变量之间的关系强度和方向。相关系数 r 的取值范围为 −1 到 +1，符号表示方向，数值表示强度。

Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other also increases (e.g., hours of revision and exam scores, r close to +0.8).

正相关：一个变量增加，另一个也增加（如复习时长与考试成绩，r 接近 +0.8）。

Negative correlation: as one variable increases, the other decreases (e.g., anxiety and memory performance, r close to −0.6).

负相关：一个变量增加，另一个减少（如焦虑程度与记忆表现，r 接近 −0.6）。

Zero correlation: no linear relationship (r near 0).

零相关：无线性关系（r 接近 0）。

Note: correlation does not imply causation. A third variable may be influencing both.

注意：相关关系不等同于因果关系，可能存在第三变量同时影响两者。

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10. IQ Formula | 智商公式

One early method of calculating Intelligence Quotient (IQ) used the ratio of mental age to chronological age. This formula is still used conceptually to understand IQ scores.

早期计算智商（IQ）的一种方法是使用心理年龄与实际年龄的比率。该公式在理解 IQ 分数时仍具概念意义。

IQ = (Mental Age ÷ Chronological Age) × 100

If a 10-year-old child performs at the level of an average 12-year-old, Mental Age = 12, Chronological Age = 10, so IQ = (12 ÷ 10) × 100 = 120.

若一名10岁儿童的测验表现相当于平均12岁儿童的水平，则心理年龄 = 12，实际年龄 = 10，因此 IQ = (12 ÷ 10) × 100 = 120。

Modern IQ tests use deviation scores, but this ratio formula helps show what an above-average or below-average score represents.

现代 IQ 测验使用离差分数，但这一比率公式有助于理解高于或低于平均的分数含义。

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11. Serial Position Effect Model | 序列位置效应模型

When recalling a list of items, memory performance is influenced by the item’s position. The serial position curve shows a U-shaped pattern with both primacy and recency effects.

回忆一系列项目时，记忆表现受项目位置影响。序列位置曲线呈 U 形，体现出首因效应和近因效应。

Primacy effect: better recall of items at the beginning of a list, because they received more rehearsal and moved into long-term memory.

首因效应：对列表开头项目的回忆更好，因为它们获得了更多复述并转入长时记忆。

Recency effect: better recall of items at the end of a list, because they are still in short-term memory at the time of recall.

近因效应：对列表末尾项目的回忆更好，因为它们在回忆时仍停留在短时记忆中。

Middle items are remembered least well because they suffer from limited rehearsal time and displacement. The model can be visualised as: Recall probability = f(position: beginning > end > middle).

中间项目回忆最差，因为它们既缺乏充足复述时间又易受干扰。该效应可表示为：回忆概率 = 函数（位置：开头 > 末尾 > 中间）。

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12. Ethical Evaluation Formula | 伦理评估公式

Psychological research must follow ethical guidelines (e.g., informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality). When judging whether a study should proceed, researchers can use a simplified cost-benefit analysis: if the potential benefits of the research outweigh the risks of harm or discomfort to participants, the study may be considered acceptable.

心理学研究必须遵循伦理准则（如知情同意、免受伤害、保密）。在判断研究是否应当进行时，研究者可使用简化的成本-收益分析：若研究的潜在利益大于参与者的伤害或不适风险，则该研究可能被视为可接受。

Ethical decision: Benefits > Risks → proceed, but with safeguards.

伦理决策：利益 > 风险 → 可进行，但须有保护措施。

If a study involves mild stress but could lead to treatments for anxiety, the science might be justified. The formula reminds us to continually minimise harm and maximise benefit.

若一项研究涉及轻度压力但可能带来焦虑症的治疗方法，科学目标或许合理。这一公式提醒我们需持续将伤害最小化、利益最大化。

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