📚 Philosophy Terminology Memory Hacks | 哲学术语速记指南
Mastering the precise vocabulary of philosophy is half the battle for Pre-U CIE candidates. This guide pairs core concepts with mnemonic devices, etymological clues, and contrasting pairs to make revision both efficient and memorable. Each term is explained in plain English, followed by its Chinese equivalent, so you can build a bilingual philosophical lexicon with confidence.
对于 Pre-U CIE 哲学考生而言，掌握精准的术语是成功的一半。本指南将核心概念与记忆术、词源线索以及对比词组相结合，让复习既高效又难忘。每个术语先用明白的英文解释，再配以中文对应，帮助你自信地构建双语哲学词库。
1. A Priori vs A Posteriori | 先天与后天
A priori knowledge is justified independently of experience — think of mathematical truths (2+2=4) or logical deductions. The Latin means ‘from what is earlier’, suggesting reasoning that comes before observation. Mnemonic: ‘A Priori is Pure reason’, noting the shared letter ‘P’.
先天知识（先验知识）的成立不依赖于经验——比如数学真理（2+2=4）或逻辑演绎。拉丁文原意是“从更早的东西而来”，暗示先于观察的推理。记忆法：A Priori 和“Pure reason”（纯粹理性）共享字母 P。
A posteriori knowledge depends on sensory experience — the colour of a rose, the temperature of coffee. Latin for ‘from what is later’, it follows observation. Connect the ‘t’ in ‘posteriori’ with ‘test’ or ‘taste’, reminding you that you must test the world to gain this knowledge.
后天知识（后验知识）依赖于感官经验——玫瑰的颜色、咖啡的温度。拉丁文意为“从后来的东西而来”，跟随观察而产生。把“posteriori”中的“t”与“test”（检验）或“taste”（品尝）联系起来，提醒你必须通过检验世界才能获得这种知识。
2. Analytic vs Synthetic | 分析命题与综合命题
An analytic statement is true solely in virtue of the meanings of its words — ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. The predicate is contained within the subject concept. Imagine ‘analysing’ the subject term and finding the predicate already inside. The word ‘analytic’ itself suggests breaking down a concept.
分析命题的真值完全取决于词语的意义——“所有单身汉都是未婚的”。谓词已经包含在主词概念之中。想象“分析”主词，就会发现谓词早已藏于其中。“analytic”一词本身就有拆解概念的意思。
A synthetic statement adds something new to the subject — ‘The bachelor is bald’. You need to go beyond the definition and check the world. ‘Synthetic’ comes from Greek ‘synthesis’, meaning ‘putting together’; you are synthesising information from the subject plus experience. Mnemonic: ‘Synthetic needs a Synthesis of fact and concept’.
综合命题为主词增加了新的信息——“这位单身汉是秃头”。你需要超越定义去考察世界。“synthetic”源自希腊语“synthesis”，意为“放在一起”；你是在将来自主词和经验的信息综合起来。记忆法：“Synthetic needs a Synthesis of fact and concept”（综合命题需要事实与概念的综合）。
3. Necessary vs Contingent | 必然与偶然
A necessary truth is one that must be true in all possible worlds — ‘2+2=4’, ‘Triangles have three sides’. No conceivable scenario could make it false. Think ‘Necessary = No escape from truth’.
必然真理是在所有可能世界都必须为真的命题——“2+2=4”、“三角形有三条边”。没有任何可设想的场景能让它假。可记为：“Necessary = No escape from truth”（必然 = 真相无处可逃）。
A contingent truth happens to be true but could have been otherwise — ‘The sky is blue’, ‘I am reading this guide’. The state of things might have been different. Connect the ‘cont-‘ of ‘contingent’ with ‘condition’, because its truth depends on conditions that happen to hold.
偶然真理碰巧为真，但本可能不是这样——“天空是蓝色的”、“我正在读这份指南”。事物状态本可能不同。把“contingent”中的“cont-”与“condition”（条件）联系起来，因为它的真依赖于恰好成立的条件。
4. Validity vs Soundness | 有效性与可靠性
In logic, an argument is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the premises, regardless of whether the premises are true. If-premises-then-conclusion must be guaranteed. Picture a water pipe: validity is about the shape of the pipe, not whether water flows in. If the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false.
在逻辑学中，如果一个论证的结论逻辑地从前提中得出，那么这个论证就是有效的，而与前提本身是否为真无关。“如果前提成立，那么结论一定成立”必须得到保证。想象一根水管：有效性关乎水管的形状，而非是否有水流过。只要前提为真，结论就不可能为假。
A sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises — thus the conclusion is guaranteed true. Soundness = Validity + True premises. Think of a sound building: it has both correct structure (validity) and solid materials (true premises).
可靠论证是前提全部为真的有效论证——因此结论也必然为真。可靠性 = 有效性 + 真实前提。想象一座坚固的建筑：它既有正确的结构（有效性），又有坚实的材料（真实前提）。
5. Deduction vs Induction | 演绎与归纳
Deduction moves from general principles to specific conclusions with certainty. If all humans are mortal and Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal. The conclusion is already latent in the premises. Mnemonic: ‘Deduction Decreases doubt’, both starting with ‘D’.
演绎从普遍原理出发，必然地推出具体结论。如果所有人都有一死，苏格拉底是人，那么苏格拉底必有一死。结论早已潜存于前提之中。记忆法：“Deduction Decreases doubt”，两者都以 D 开头。
Induction infers general laws from specific observations — seeing the sun rise daily leads to ‘the sun always rises’. Induction yields probability, not certainty. Connect ‘In-‘ with ‘Increase’: induction Increases the scope of knowledge but with some risk.
归纳从具体观察中推断普遍规律——每天看到太阳升起，就得出“太阳总会升起”。归纳得出的是或然性，而非必然性。把“In-”与“Increase”（增加）联系起来：归纳增加了知识的范围，但伴有一定风险。
6. Ontology vs Epistemology | 本体论与认识论
Ontology is the study of what exists — the furniture of reality. Questions: Do numbers exist? Is there a mind-independent world? The Greek root ‘ont-‘ means ‘being’. Remember: ‘Ontology asks what IS’.
本体论研究的是什么东西存在——世界的家具配置。问题：数字存在吗？是否存在独立于心灵的世界？希腊词根“ont-”意为“存在”。记住：“Ontology asks what IS”（本体论问“是什么”）。
Epistemology is the study of knowledge — its nature, sources, and limits. How do we know that we know? The Greek ‘episteme’ means ‘knowledge’. Visualise ‘episteme’ and ‘epistemology’ as a standing (epi) science (steme) of knowledge. Epistemology asks ‘How do you know?’
认识论研究的是知识——其本质、来源和限度。我们如何知道自己知道？希腊语“episteme”意为“知识”。想象“episteme”和“epistemology”为一门关于知识的站立之学。认识论问的是“你怎么知道？”。
7. Utilitarianism vs Deontology | 功利主义与义务论
Utilitarianism judges actions by their consequences, aiming for the greatest happiness of the greatest number. Think ‘Utility’ — usefulness or benefit. The slogan: ‘The greatest good for the greatest number’. Mnemonic: ‘Utilitarianism Uses a happiness calculator’.
功利主义根据行为的后果来评判，追求最大多数人的最大幸福。想想“Utility”——用处或利益。口号是：“最大多数人的最大善”。记忆法：“Utilitarianism Uses a happiness calculator”（功利主义使用幸福计算器）。
Deontology holds that some actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of outcomes. Duties and rules are paramount. From Greek ‘deon’ (duty). Connect ‘Deon’ with ‘Duty’: both start with ‘D’. Kant is the prime example: never lie, even to save a life, because lying violates a universalisable duty.
义务论认为一些行为本身就是对或错的，无论结果如何。义务和规则至上。源自希腊语“deon”（义务）。将“Deon”与“Duty”联系起来：都以 D 开头。康德是最佳范例：从不撒谎，哪怕是为了拯救生命，因为撒谎违反了一条可普遍化的义务。
8. Dualism vs Materialism | 二元论与唯物主义
Substance dualism asserts that mind and matter are two fundamentally distinct substances. Descartes’s famous division: res cogitans (thinking thing) vs res extensa (extended thing). Remember ‘Dualism = Double substances’. The mind is private and non-spatial; the body is public and spatial.
实体二元论主张心灵和物质是两种根本不同的实体。笛卡尔著名的划分：思维实体与广延实体。记住“Dualism = Double substances”（二元论 = 双实体）。心灵是私密、非空间的；身体是公共、有广延的。
Materialism (or physicalism) claims that everything that exists is physical, or supervenes on the physical. Mental states are just brain states. Mnemonic: ‘Materialism = Matter is all’. There is no ghost in the machine; consciousness is a product of complex neural activity.
唯物主义（或物理主义）声称存在的一切都是物理的，或者随附于物理事物之上。心灵状态只是大脑状态。记忆法：“Materialism = Matter is all”（唯物主义 = 物质即一切）。机器中没有幽灵；意识是复杂神经活动的产物。
9. Free Will vs Determinism | 自由意志与决定论
Libertarian free will claims that agents have genuine alternative possibilities and can be the ultimate source of their actions, undetermined by prior causes. This is the commonsense view of moral responsibility. ‘Libertarian’ links to ‘liberty’, suggesting freedom from causal chains.
自由意志论主张行动者拥有真正的替代可能性，并且能够成为其行为的终极来源，不受先前原因的必然决定。这是关于道德责任的常识观点。“Libertarian”与“liberty”相关，暗示从因果链条中解放。
Hard determinism holds that every event, including human decisions, is necessitated by preceding causes and laws of nature. Freedom is therefore an illusion. Laplacian determinism: if you knew all prior states, you could predict everything. Soft determinism (compatibilism) tries to reconcile the two by redefining freedom as acting according to one’s desires without external coercion.
强硬决定论认为每个事件，包括人的决定，都由先前的原因和自然法则所必然决定。因此自由是一种幻觉。拉普拉斯决定论：如果你知道所有先前的状态，你就能预测一切。温和决定论（相容论）试图通过将自由重新定义为按照自身欲望行动而不受外部强制，来调和两者。
10. Qualia and Intentionality | 感受质与意向性
Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience — the redness of red, the painfulness of pain. They are ‘what it is like’ to have an experience. Mnemonic: ‘Qualia = Quality of feeling’. It is notoriously hard to explain in physical terms; hence Frank Jackson’s knowledge argument and the ‘Mary’s room’ thought experiment.
感受质是意识经验中主观的、品质的方面——红色的红之为红，疼痛的痛之为痛。它们就是“拥有某种经验是怎么样的”。记忆法：“Qualia = Quality of feeling”（感受质 = 感觉的品质）。用物理术语极其难解释；因此有了弗兰克·杰克逊的知识论证和“玛丽的房间”思想实验。
Intentionality is the ‘aboutness’ of mental states — beliefs, desires, thoughts are always about something. Borrowed from Brentano, it is the mark of the mental. ‘Intentional’ comes from Latin ‘intendere’ (to aim, to point). Your thought ‘the cat is on the mat’ points to a state of affairs in the world. Not to be confused with ‘intention’ (having a purpose), though both involve directedness.
意向性是心灵状态的“关于性”——信念、欲望、思想总是关于某物的。从布伦塔诺借用而来，它是心灵的标志。“Intentional”源自拉丁语“intendere”（瞄准、指向）。你的思想“猫在垫子上”指向世界中的某个事态。不要与“intention”（有目的）混淆，尽管两者都涉及指向性。
11. Logical Positivism and Falsification | 逻辑实证主义与证伪
Logical positivism, advanced by the Vienna Circle, held that a statement is cognitively meaningful only if it is either analytically true or empirically verifiable. Metaphysical and ethical claims were dismissed as literally nonsense. The verification principle itself, however, is neither analytic nor empirically verifiable, which turned out to be a fatal flaw.
逻辑实证主义由维也纳学派提出，主张一个陈述在认知上有意义，当且仅当它要么是分析为真，要么是经验上可证实的。形而上学和伦理学断言被视为字面上的无意义。然而，证实原则本身既非分析也非经验上可证实，这成为一个致命缺陷。
Karl Popper replaced verification with falsification as the criterion of scientific demarcation. A scientific theory must make risky predictions that can, in principle, be shown false. ‘Falsify’ means ‘to make false’. A theory that rules out nothing (e.g., Freud’s psychology) is unscientific. Mnemonic: ‘Popper Pops un-falsifiable theories’ (pop them like balloons).
卡尔·波普尔以证伪取代证实，作为科学划界的标准。一个科学理论必须做出能够原则上证明为假的大胆预测。“Falsify”意为“使之假”。一个什么都不排除的理论（如弗洛伊德心理学）就是非科学的。记忆法：“Popper Pops un-falsifiable theories”（波普尔像戳破气球一样戳破不可证伪的理论）。
12. Empiricism vs Rationalism | 经验主义与理性主义
Empiricism emphasises experience as the primary source of knowledge. The mind begins as a tabula rasa (blank slate). Key figures: Locke, Berkeley, Hume. Remember ‘Empiricism is about Experience’, both starting with ‘E’. ‘Nothing is in the intellect that was not first in the senses.’
经验主义强调经验是知识的主要来源。心灵开始是一块白板。代表人物：洛克、贝克莱、休谟。记住“Empiricism is about Experience”，两者都以 E 开头。“凡在理智中的，无不先在感觉之中。”
Rationalism holds that reason is the chief source of knowledge, and that some truths (innate ideas) are known independently of experience. Descartes, Spinoza, Leibniz. Mnemonic: ‘Rationalism rates Reason above all’. The ‘ratio’ root means ‘calculation, reason’. Rationalists trust the intellect’s ability to grasp reality directly.
理性主义主张理性是知识的主要来源，并且有些真理（天赋观念）是独立于经验而被认识的。笛卡尔、斯宾诺莎、莱布尼茨。记忆法：“Rationalism rates Reason above all”（理性主义把理性置于一切之上）。词根“ratio”意为“计算、理性”。理性主义者相信理智具有直接把握实在的能力。
Published by TutorHao | Philosophy Revision Series | aleveler.com
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