Pre-U AQA Law: Quick Vocabulary Guide | Pre-U AQA 法律：词汇术语速记指南

📚 Pre-U AQA Law: Quick Vocabulary Guide | Pre-U AQA 法律：词汇术语速记指南

Mastering legal vocabulary is essential for success in Pre-U AQA Law. This guide breaks down key terms into manageable chunks, pairing English explanations with Chinese translations to help you memorise and apply concepts with confidence. Each section covers a core area of the syllabus, reinforcing your understanding of the English legal system, criminal law, tort, and contract law.

掌握法律词汇是在 Pre-U AQA 法律课程中取得好成绩的关键。本指南将核心术语拆分为易于记忆的模块，配以中文解释，帮助你有信心地记忆并运用这些概念。每一节都覆盖了教学大纲中的核心领域，巩固你对英国法律制度、刑法、侵权法和合同法的理解。

1. Sources of Law | 法律渊源

Statute law (also called legislation or Acts of Parliament) is law created by Parliament. A Bill must pass through the House of Commons and the House of Lords, then receive Royal Assent. Delegated legislation is law made by bodies other than Parliament, to whom Parliament has delegated authority – for example, Orders in Council, statutory instruments, and by-laws. Common law (or case law) is law developed by judges through the doctrine of precedent in the courts.

成文法（又称立法或议会法令）是由议会制定的法律。一项法案必须先后在下议院和上议院通过，然后获得御准。授权立法是指由议会授权给非议会机构制定的法律——例如枢密院令、法定文书和地方法规。普通法（或判例法）是由法官通过法院的先例原则发展而来的法律。

2. The Doctrine of Precedent | 先例原则

Stare decisis means ‘to stand by things decided’. A precedent is a principle or rule established in a previous legal case that is either binding on or persuasive for a court when deciding subsequent cases with similar issues or facts. The ratio decidendi is the legal reasoning or principle of law upon which the decision is based – this is the binding part. Obiter dicta (singular obiter dictum) are ‘things said by the way’, i.e. remarks made by a judge that do not form part of the ratio; they may be persuasive but are not binding.

stare decisis 意为“遵循已决事项”。先例是指在先前案件中确立的法律原则或规则，当法院在审理具有类似问题或事实的后案时，该先例具有约束力或说服力。判决理由（ratio decidendi）是判决所依据的法律推理或原则——这是具有约束力的部分。附带意见（obiter dicta，单数 obiter dictum）是指法官的“附随评述”，即不构成判决理由的那部分言论；它们可能具有说服力，但不具有约束力。

3. Statutory Interpretation | 成文法解释

Judges use several approaches to interpret statutes. The literal rule gives words their plain, ordinary dictionary meaning, even if the result seems harsh. The golden rule is a modification of the literal rule: it allows the court to depart from the literal meaning if it would lead to an absurd result. The mischief rule looks at the gap or ‘mischief’ in the common law that the statute was intended to remedy, and interprets the statute to suppress that mischief. The purposive approach goes further, seeking to give effect to the overall purpose or intention of Parliament, often looking at the broader context and international obligations.

法官使用多种方法解释成文法。文义规则（literal rule）是指赋予词语其通常的、字面的含义，即使结果看起来严苛。黄金规则（golden rule）是对文义规则的修正：如果按字面含义解释会导致荒谬的结果，法院可以偏离该字面含义。除弊规则（mischief rule）着眼于成文法旨在弥补的普通法中的空白或“弊端”，并解释该法以消除该弊端。目的解释法（purposive approach）更进一步，寻求实现议会立法背后的整体目的或意图，通常会考虑更广泛的背景以及国际义务。

4. Key Criminal Law Elements | 刑法核心要素

Actus reus is the guilty act: the external element of a crime. It can include an act, a failure to act (omission), or a state of affairs. Mens rea is the guilty mind: the mental element. This can take the form of intention, recklessness, negligence or knowledge, depending on the offence. Strict liability offences require no proof of mens rea for at least part of the actus reus – a person can be guilty simply by doing the prohibited act. Causation links the defendant’s conduct to the resulting harm; both factual causation (‘but for’ test) and legal causation (substantial and operative cause) must be established.

犯罪行为（actus reus）是指构成犯罪的外部行为要素。它可以包括一个行为、不作为（失职）或某种事态。犯罪意图（mens rea）是指主观的心理要素。依具体罪行不同，它可以表现为意图、鲁莽、过失或明知。严格责任犯罪不要求对犯罪行为的至少某个部分证明犯罪意图的存在——一个人只要实施了被禁止的行为即可能构成犯罪。因果关系将被告的行为与造成的损害联系起来；必须同时证明事实因果关系（“若非”测试）和法律因果关系（实质且起作用的致损原因）。

5. Homicide: Murder and Manslaughter | 杀人罪：谋杀与过失杀人

Murder is the unlawful killing of a reasonable person under the King’s peace with malice aforethought. The actus reus is the unlawful killing of a human being; the mens rea is intention to kill or cause grievous bodily harm (GBH). Voluntary manslaughter arises when a defendant has the mens rea for murder but raises a partial defence, such as diminished responsibility or loss of control. Involuntary manslaughter occurs where the defendant does not have the mens rea for murder but kills through unlawful and dangerous act (constructive manslaughter), gross negligence, or recklessness.

谋杀是指具有恶意预谋（malice aforethought）的、在王国内不法杀害合理存在的人。其犯罪行为是不法杀害一个活人；犯罪意图是意图杀害或造成严重人身伤害（GBH）。自愿性过失杀人（voluntary manslaughter）是指被告虽然具有谋杀的意图，但成功提出了减轻罪责的辩护理由，例如精神失常减责或失控。非自愿性过失杀人（involuntary manslaughter）是指被告没有谋杀意图，但通过非法且危险的行为（推定过失杀人）、严重疏忽或鲁莽行为导致他人死亡。

6. Property Offences | 财产犯罪

Theft is defined in the Theft Act 1968 as the dishonest appropriation of property belonging to another with the intention of permanently depriving the other of it. Key elements include ‘appropriation’, ‘property’, ‘belonging to another’, ‘dishonesty’, and ‘intention to permanently deprive’. Robbery is theft aggravated by the use or threat of force immediately before or at the time of stealing. Burglary under s.9 of the same Act involves entering a building or part of a building as a trespasser with intent to commit theft, GBH, or criminal damage (s.9(1)(a)), or having entered as a trespasser, actually committing theft or GBH (s.9(1)(b)).

根据《1968年盗窃法》，盗窃是指不诚实地侵占他人财产，并意图永久剥夺他人的财产。关键要素包括“侵占”、“财产”、“属于他人”、“不诚实”和“意图永久剥夺”。抢劫（robbery）是在盗窃即将开始前或实施盗窃时，通过使用或威胁使用武力而使盗窃加重的犯罪形式。入室盗窃（burglary）根据该法第9条，是指作为侵入者进入任何建筑物或其一部分，意图实施盗窃、严重人身伤害或刑事毁坏（第9(1)(a)条），或者作为侵入者进入后实际实施了盗窃或造成严重人身伤害（第9(1)(b)条）。

7. Tort Law: Negligence | 侵权法：过失侵权

To establish negligence, a claimant must prove three elements: a duty of care was owed, that duty was breached, and the breach caused damage that was not too remote. The neighbour principle from Donoghue v Stevenson established that you must take reasonable care to avoid acts or omissions that you can reasonably foresee would be likely to injure your neighbour. The modern three-stage test under Caparo considers (1) foreseeability of damage, (2) proximity, and (3) whether it is fair, just and reasonable to impose a duty. Breach is judged by the objective standard of the reasonable person. Causation uses the ‘but for’ test and legal causation; damage must be reasonably foreseeable (Wagon Mound).

要证明过失侵权，原告必须证实三个要素：被告对其负有注意义务，该义务被违反，且该违反行为造成了损害而该损害并非过于遥远。Donoghue v Stevenson 案确立的邻人原则表明，你必须采取合理的注意，避免你能够合理预见到可能会伤害你的邻人的作为或不作为。根据Caparo 案的现代三阶段测试，须考虑（1）损害的可预见性，（2）近因性，以及（3）施加注意义务是否公平、公正且合理。违反义务以客观的合理人标准进行判断。因果关系采用“若非”测试及法律因果关系；损害必须是可合理预见的（Wagon Mound 案）。

8. Contract Law: Formation Essentials | 合同法：合同成立要件

A valid contract requires offer, acceptance, consideration, and an intention to create legal relations. An offer is an expression of willingness to contract on specified terms, made with the intention that it shall become binding as soon as it is accepted. An invitation to treat is not an offer but an invitation for others to make offers (e.g. goods displayed on a shelf). Acceptance must be a mirror image of the offer, communicated to the offeror (though the postal rule is an exception). Consideration is the ‘price for a promise’ – something of value exchanged between the parties. It must be sufficient but need not be adequate; past consideration is generally not good consideration.

一个有效的合同必须包含要约、承诺、对价以及建立法律关系的意图。要约（offer）是一方当事人以特定条款订立合同的意思表示，并具有一经对方承诺即受其约束的意图。要约邀请（invitation to treat）本身并非要约，而是邀请他人向自己发出要约（例如货架上陈列的商品）。承诺（acceptance）必须像镜子一样反映要约的全部条款，并传达给要约人（但邮寄规则是例外）。对价（consideration）是“允诺的代价”——即双方之间交换的某种有价值的东西。对价必须充分但不必足够；过去的对价通常不构成有效的对价。

9. The Rule of Law and Judicial Review | 法治与司法审查

The rule of law is a constitutional principle that requires the law to apply equally to everyone, including the government. It ensures that power is exercised according to the law, not arbitrarily. Judicial review is a process by which courts examine the lawfulness of decisions made by public bodies. Grounds for judicial review, as set out in Council of Civil Service Unions v Minister for the Civil Service (the GCHQ case), include illegality, irrationality (Wednesbury unreasonableness), and procedural impropriety. A court may quash a decision, prohibit an action, or issue a mandatory order.

法治是一项宪法原则，要求法律平等地适用于包括政府在内的所有人。它确保权力是依法行使的，而非恣意专断。司法审查是指法院审查公共机构所做决定的合法性的程序。司法审查的根据（由GCHQ案确立）包括不合法、不合理性（Wednesbury不合理原则）以及程序不当。法院可以撤销一项决定、禁止某项行为或发出强制性命令。

10. Equity and Its Maxims | 衡平法及其格言

Equity developed as a body of rules to supplement the common law where it was rigid or deficient. It operates through maxims – guiding principles – such as ‘he who comes to equity must come with clean hands’, ‘equity follows the law’, and ‘equity will not suffer a wrong to be without a remedy’. Equitable remedies are discretionary and include injunctions, specific performance, and rescission. The fusion of law and equity was achieved by the Judicature Acts 1873-75, but the distinction between legal and equitable rights and remedies remains important.

衡平法作为一套规则体系，最初发展是为了弥补普通法在僵化或不足之处的缺陷。它通过格言——指导性原则——来运作，例如“求助于衡平者必须自身清白”“衡平遵循法律”以及“衡平不容忍有侵害而无救济”。衡平法上的救济是裁量性的，包括禁制令、特定履行和撤销合同。法律与衡平的融合由《1873-75年司法组织法》实现，但普通法权利与衡平法权利及其救济之间的区别依然重要。

11. Defences in Criminal Law | 刑法的抗辩理由

Defences can be complete (resulting in acquittal) or partial (reducing murder to voluntary manslaughter). Self-defence is a complete defence if the defendant used reasonable force in response to an unjustified threat. Duress involves being forced to commit a crime under threat of death or serious injury; it is a complete defence for most crimes but not for murder. Insanity (M’Naghten Rules) requires proving a defect of reason from disease of the mind, such that the defendant did not know the nature and quality of the act, or did not know it was wrong. Intoxication may be voluntary or involuntary, and its availability as a defence depends on the specific intent of the crime charged.

抗辩理由可以是完全抗辩（导致无罪释放）或部分抗辩（将谋杀减轻为自愿过失杀人）。如果被告针对不合理的威胁使用了合理的武力，自卫便是一个完全抗辩理由。被胁迫（duress）是指在死亡或严重伤害的威胁下被迫实施犯罪；对大多数犯罪而言它是完全抗辩，但对谋杀不适用。精神失常（insanity，据M’Naghten规则）要求证明被告因精神疾病导致理性缺陷，以致其不知行为的性质或质量，或不知行为错误。醉酒（intoxication）可分为自愿和非自愿，其能否作为抗辩理由取决于被控犯罪是否要求特定意图。

12. Damages and Remedies | 损害赔偿与救济

In tort and contract, damages are the primary remedy. The aim is to put the claimant in the position they would have been in had the wrong not occurred (tort) or had the contract been performed (contract). Compensatory damages cover actual loss; consequential damages flow naturally from the breach; exemplary (punitive) damages aim to punish the defendant. In contract, damages must not be too remote under the rule in Hadley v Baxendale. In tort, special damages are for quantifiable financial losses proved with precision, while general damages are for non-pecuniary losses such as pain and suffering.

在侵权法和合同法中，损害赔偿金是主要的救济手段。其目的在于使原告处于仿佛不法行为未曾发生（侵权）或合同已如约履行（合同）的境地。补偿性损害赔偿覆盖实际损失；间接损失赔偿源于违约的自然结果；惩罚性赔偿旨在惩罚被告。合同法中，根据Hadley v Baxendale 案确立的规则，损害赔偿不得过于间接。侵权法中，特别损害赔偿是针对能够精确证明的可量化经济损失，而一般损害赔偿是针对诸如疼痛与痛苦等非金钱损失。

Published by TutorHao | Law Revision Series | aleveler.com

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