📚 Pre-U AQA Philosophy: Glossary & Terminology Quick-Memory Guide | Pre-U AQA 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical terminology is the first step toward high-level analysis in your Pre-U AQA Philosophy exams. This guide distils essential concepts into memorable explanations, pairing each with a clear Chinese equivalent so you can strengthen bilingual understanding and recall under pressure.
掌握哲学专业术语是在Pre-U AQA哲学考试中进行高阶分析的第一步。本指南将核心概念提炼为易记的阐释，并配以清晰的中文对应词，助你在备考中强化双语理解与快速回忆。
1. Epistemology: The Theory of Knowledge | 认识论：知识论
Epistemology deals with the nature, sources, and limits of knowledge. It asks questions like ‘What does it mean to know something?’ and ‘How can we justify our beliefs?’ A central traditional definition is justified true belief (JTB), though Gettier cases challenge its sufficiency.
认识论研究知识的本质、来源与界限，探讨“认识某物意味着什么”以及“我们如何为信念辩护”。传统的核心定义是“被辩护的真信念”（JTB），但盖提尔案例对其充分性提出了挑战。
- Justified True Belief (JTB): S knows that P if and only if P is true, S believes that P, and S is justified in believing P.
- 被辩护的真信念（JTB）： S知道P，当且仅当P为真，S相信P，并且S对P的信念是有辩护的。
Remember the three distinct conditions — truth, belief, justification — each is necessary, and together they were once thought sufficient.
记住三个独立条件——真、信念、辩护——每一个都必要，且曾被认为共同构成充分条件。
2. A Priori vs A Posteriori | 先验与后验
An a priori proposition is knowable independently of sensory experience; it is justified by reason alone, such as ‘2 + 2 = 4’. In contrast, a posteriori knowledge depends on empirical evidence — ‘The sky is blue’ requires observation.
先验命题不依赖于感官经验即可认知，仅凭理性辩护，例如“2+2=4”。反之，后验知识依赖于经验证据——“天空是蓝色的”需要观察。
Link these with analytic/synthetic distinctions: a priori often aligns with analytic truths (true by definition), while a posteriori typically involves synthetic truths (true based on how the world is).
将这两个概念与分析/综合区分联系起来：先验常与分析真理（由定义而为真）一致，后验则通常涉及综合真理（基于世界的实际状况而为真）。
3. Necessary vs Contingent Truths | 必然真理与偶然真理
A necessary truth is one that could not have been false; it holds in all possible worlds. For example, ‘Triangles have three sides’. A contingent truth is true in the actual world but could have been otherwise — ‘Paris is the capital of France’.
必然真理在所有可能世界中都为真，不可能为假，如“三角形有三条边”。偶然真理在现实世界中为真，但可能为假——例如“巴黎是法国的首都”。
These modal concepts are crucial when evaluating ontological arguments for God’s existence or assessing Hume’s fork.
这些模态概念在评估上帝存在的本体论论证或审视休谟的叉子时至关重要。
4. Dualism vs Physicalism (Philosophy of Mind) | 二元论与物理主义（心灵哲学）
Substance dualism (Descartes) claims that mind and body are two distinct substances: res cogitans (thinking substance) and res extensa (extended substance). Physicalism holds that everything, including mental states, is physical or supervenes on the physical.
实体二元论（笛卡尔）主张心灵与身体是两种不同的实体：思维实体与广延实体。物理主义则主张一切事物（包括心理状态）都是物理的，或随附于物理之上。
Key physicalist theories include identity theory (mental states are brain states) and functionalism (mental states are defined by their causal roles).
主要的物理主义理论包括同一论（心理状态即大脑状态）和功能主义（心理状态由其因果角色定义）。
5. Qualia: The ‘What It Is Like’ of Experience | 感质：经验的主观感受性
Qualia refer to the intrinsic, subjective, qualitative properties of conscious experience — the redness of red, the painfulness of pain. They pose a significant challenge for physicalist explanations of consciousness, famously illustrated by Frank Jackson’s knowledge argument (Mary the colour scientist).
感质指意识经验中内在的、主观的、质的属性——红的红性、痛的痛感。它对物理主义对意识的解释构成了重大挑战，弗兰克·杰克逊的知识论证（黑白玛丽）即为著名示例。
When revising, recall that qualia are often used to support property dualism, epiphenomenalism, or the ‘hard problem’ of consciousness.
复习时请记住，感质常被用来支持属性二元论、副现象论或意识的“困难问题”。
6. Utilitarianism: Bentham and Mill | 功利主义：边沁与密尔
Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that judges actions right or wrong based on their consequences, specifically the amount of happiness or pleasure they produce. Bentham’s principle of utility advocates ‘the greatest happiness for the greatest number’, quantified by the hedonistic calculus (intensity, duration, certainty, etc.).
功利主义是一种规范伦理学理论，以行为的后果（尤其产生的幸福或快乐总量）来判断对错。边沁的功利原则主张“最大多数人的最大幸福”，并通过苦乐计算（强度、持续时间、确定性等）来量化。
John Stuart Mill refined the theory by distinguishing higher (intellectual) and lower (bodily) pleasures, and emphasised rule-utilitarianism in some readings.
约翰·斯图亚特·密尔区分了高级（理智）快乐与低级（身体）快乐，并强调规则功利主义的解读。
7. Deontology: Kant’s Categorical Imperative | 义务论：康德的绝对命令
Deontology asserts that the morality of an action is determined by its adherence to rules or duties, regardless of consequences. Kant’s Categorical Imperative is the supreme rational principle: ‘Act only according to that maxim whereby you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’
义务论主张，行为道德与否取决于其是否遵循规则或义务，而非后果。康德的绝对命令是至高的理性原则：“只按照你同时能够愿意它成为普遍法则的准则去行动。”
Also remember the humanity formula: ‘Act so that you treat humanity, whether in your own person or in that of another, always as an end and never merely as a means.’
同样牢记人性公式：“你要如此行动，即无论是你自身中的人性，还是他人身中的人性，都永远当作目的，而绝不仅仅当作手段。”
8. Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics | 亚里士多德的美德伦理学
Aristotle’s ethical framework focuses on character and eudaimonia (flourishing or well-being), not on discrete acts or rules. A virtue is a state of character concerned with choice, lying in a golden mean relative to us, determined by reason.
亚里士多德的伦理框架关注品格与eudaimonia（繁荣或良好生活），而非离散行为或规则。美德是一种与选择相关的品格状态，是通过理性确定的、相对于我们而言的中庸之道。
The doctrine of the mean holds that moral virtue is an intermediate between excess and deficiency, e.g. courage is the mean between rashness and cowardice.
中庸之道主张道德美德是过度与不及之间的适中，例如勇敢是鲁莽与怯懦之间的中道。
9. The Problem of Evil | 恶的问题
The logical problem of evil argues that the existence of an omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient God is incompatible with the existence of evil. The evidential problem focuses on the amount and distribution of pointless suffering as strong evidence against such a God.
逻辑恶的问题论证全能、全善、全知的上帝与恶的存在不相容。证据恶的问题则关注无意义苦难的数量与分布，作为反对此种上帝的有力证据。
Theodicies (e.g. free will defence, soul-making) attempt to justify God’s permission of evil. Revise these alongside sceptical theism and process theology.
神义论（如自由意志辩护、灵魂锻造）试图为上帝允许恶作出辩护。复习时请结合怀疑有神论和过程神学。
10. Meta-Ethics: Cognitivism vs Non-Cognitivism | 元伦理学：认知主义与非认知主义
Cognitivism holds that moral statements express beliefs that are truth-apt (capable of being true or false). Non-cognitivism denies this; moral utterances instead express emotions (emotivism) or prescriptions (prescriptivism).
认知主义认为道德陈述表达具有真值的信念（可真可假）。非认知主义否认这一点；道德言论表达情感（情绪主义）或命令（规定主义）。
Key non-cognitivist theories include Ayer’s emotivism (‘Boo/hurrah’ theory) and Hare’s universal prescriptivism. Error theory (Mackie) is cognitivist but claims all moral statements are false.
主要的非认知主义理论包括艾耶尔的情绪主义（“嘘/好哇”理论）和黑尔的普遍规定主义。错误论（麦基）是认知主义，但主张一切道德陈述皆为假。
11. Determinism, Libertarianism, and Compatibilism | 决定论、自由意志论与相容论
Hard determinism holds that all events, including human choices, are causally necessitated, and therefore free will is an illusion. Libertarianism (in the free will debate) argues that free will is real and incompatible with determinism; agents have genuine alternative possibilities. Compatibilism maintains that free will is compatible with determinism, often redefining freedom as acting without coercion or in accordance with one’s desires.
强硬决定论认为一切事件，包括人类选择，均为因果必然，因此自由意志是幻觉。自由意志论（在自由意志争论中）主张自由意志真实存在，且与决定论不相容；行动者拥有真正的替代可能性。相容论坚持自由意志与决定论相容，常将自由重新定义为不受强制地行动或按照自身欲望行动。
Memorise key theorists: d’Holbach (hard determinist), Chisholm (agent causation libertarian), Hume (classical compatibilist).
记住关键理论家：霍尔巴赫（强硬决定论者）、齐硕姆（行动者原因的自由意志论者）、休谟（经典相容论者）。
12. The Ontological Argument | 本体论论证
The ontological argument is an a priori argument for God’s existence, famously formulated by Anselm: God is ‘that than which nothing greater can be conceived’; existing in reality is greater than existing solely in the understanding, so God must exist. Descartes’ version relies on God being a supremely perfect being, and existence is a perfection.
本体论论证是先验的上帝存在论证，由安瑟伦著名地表述：上帝是“无法设想有比之更伟大者”；存在于现实中比仅存在于理智中更伟大，故上帝必然存在。笛卡尔的版本基于上帝为至上完美的存在，而存在是一种完善性。
Key criticisms include Gaunilo’s parody (the perfect island) and Kant’s objection that existence is not a predicate. Use these to structure evaluative essays.
主要批评包括高尼罗的戏仿（完美的岛屿）和康德的反对：存在不是谓词。运用这些构建评价性文章。
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