📚 Pre-U Cambridge Philosophy: Essential Glossary Quick Guide | Pre-U Cambridge 哲学：词汇术语速记指南
Mastering philosophical terminology is half the battle in Pre-U Cambridge Philosophy. This quick guide breaks down core terms from epistemology, metaphysics, ethics, logic and beyond, pairing each with a concise definition and a memorable mnemonic. Use it to prime your revision, sharpen your essays and boost your confidence in using technical language precisely. Let’s turn jargon into clear, exam-ready understanding.
掌握哲学术语是征服 Pre-U Cambridge 哲学的关键一步。本速记指南将认识论、形而上学、伦理学、逻辑学等领域的关键词汇逐一拆解，每条都配有简洁定义和助记小窍门。用它来激活复习、打磨论文，并提升准确使用专业语言的信心。让我们一起把术语变成清晰、可应考的思维工具。
1. Epistemology Essentials | 认识论核心术语
A priori / A posteriori: Knowledge that is independent of experience, e.g. mathematical truths like ‘2+2=4’, is a priori. Knowledge that depends on sense experience, e.g. ‘the cat is on the mat’, is a posteriori. Memory tip: a priori means ‘prior’ to checking the world; a posteriori comes ‘post’ experience.
先验 / 后验：先验知识不依赖于感官经验，如“2+2=4”；后验知识则依靠感官经验，如“猫在垫子上”。速记：prior 暗示先于经验，post 暗示经验之后。
Justified True Belief (JTB): Plato’s traditional definition of knowledge: a claim must be believed, true, and backed by adequate evidence (justification). The Gettier problem later showed that these three conditions can be satisfied without genuine knowledge, sparking lively debate. Recall ‘JTB’ like a licence plate for your knowledge claims.
确证的真信念：柏拉图传统定义认为知识必须是被相信、为真且有充分证据（确证）的命题。后来葛梯尔问题揭示三者齐备仍可能不构成真正的知识，引发了热烈讨论。记住 JTB 就如给知识主张上的号码牌。
Scepticism: The view that knowledge is either impossible or currently unattained. Global scepticism questions all knowledge, while local scepticism targets specific domains. Descartes’ evil demon thought experiment is a classic sceptical challenge. Think of sceptics as the permanent ‘doubting detectives’ of philosophy.
怀疑论：认为知识不可能获得或目前尚未获得的观点。全面怀疑论质疑一切知识，局部怀疑论只针对某些领域。笛卡尔的恶魔论证就是经典的怀疑论挑战。可以把怀疑论者想象成哲学界永远的“怀疑侦探”。
2. Metaphysics & Ontology | 形而上学与本体论
Substance: In Aristotle’s metaphysics, a substance is an individual thing that exists independently, such as a particular horse or a human being. Substances are bearers of properties, what the world is ultimately made of. Recall: a substance ‘stands under’ its attributes.
实体：在亚里士多德形而上学中，实体是独立存在的个体，比如一匹特定的马或一个具体的人。实体是属性的承载者，是世界最基本的构成。助记：实体就是“站”在属性下面的东西。
Dualism vs Monism: Dualism, famously defended by Descartes, claims there are two fundamental kinds of substance: mind and matter. Monism holds that there is only one kind of substance, such as physical matter (materialism) or mind (idealism). Contrast the ‘two-realms’ picture with the ‘one-stuff’ unification.
二元论 vs 一元论：二元论以笛卡尔为代表，主张世界有两种基本实体：心灵和物质。一元论则认为只有一种实体，例如只有物质（唯物主义）或只有心灵（唯心主义）。记住“二元”是两张地图，“一元”是一张完整蓝图。
Universals and Particulars: A universal is a property or kind that can be shared by many particulars, e.g. ‘redness’ is instantiated by many red apples. The debate over whether universals exist independently (Plato’s Forms) or only in particulars (Aristotle) is central to ontology. Think of universals as the common ingredients repeated across recipes.
共相与殊相：共相是可以被多个殊相共有的属性或种类，比如“红色”可以被许多红苹果实例化。争论的焦点在于共相是否独立存在（柏拉图的理型）或只存在于殊相之中（亚里士多德）。共相就像不同食谱中重复出现的共同成分。
3. Philosophy of Mind | 心灵哲学
Qualia: Qualia are the subjective, qualitative aspects of conscious experience — what it is like to taste chocolate, see crimson, or feel pain. They pose a serious challenge to purely physicalist accounts of mind. Memory aid: think of ‘qual’ as the ‘quality’ of your inner mental show.
感受质：感受质是指意识体验中主观的、质性的方面——品尝巧克力、看见深红或感受疼痛时的“它像什么”。它们对纯粹的物理主义解释构成严重挑战。速记：qual 是内心里“质感”的缩写。
Intentionality: The ‘aboutness’ of mental states; a thought can be about a unicorn, a fear about an exam. Brentano identified intentionality as the mark of the mental. Remind yourself: your mind can point to things even if they don’t exist, like an arrow aimed at a cloud.
意向性：心灵状态的“关于性”——一个思想可以关于独角兽，恐惧可以关于考试。布伦塔诺将意向性视为心理现象的标记。记法：心灵能指向不存在的东西，就像一支射向云彩的箭。
The Hard Problem of Consciousness: Coined by David Chalmers, this refers to the puzzle of why and how physical processes in the brain give rise to subjective experience. Easy problems deal with functions; the hard problem is about conscious feeling itself. Simply put: why doesn’t all the brain’s work happen ‘in the dark’?
意识的难题：由查尔默斯提出，指大脑的物理过程为何以及如何产生主观体验的谜题。简单问题关乎功能，意识难题则关乎感受本身。一句话：为什么大脑活动不是全在“黑暗中”默默进行？
4. Ethical Theories | 伦理理论
Utilitarianism: An ethical theory that judges actions by their consequences, aiming to maximise overall happiness or utility. Bentham’s hedonistic calculus and Mill’s higher pleasures are classic formulations. Remember: ‘useful’ actions produce the greatest good for the greatest number — utility rules.
功利主义：根据后果评判行为、旨在最大化总体幸福或效用的伦理理论。边沁的幸福计算和密尔的高级快乐是其经典版本。助记：最有“用”的行为为最多人创造最大善——效用为王。
Deontology: Kant’s duty-based ethics, where the moral worth of an action lies in its conformity to a universal moral law, not in its consequences. The Categorical Imperative demands that we act only on maxims we can will as universal laws. Think of deontology as ‘duty-ontology’: obligations define the right.
义务论：康德基于义务的伦理学，行为道德价值取决于是否符合普遍的道德法则，而非后果。绝对命令要求只按照你能意愿其成为普遍法则的准则去行动。速记：义务论就是以“义务”为本体，责任界定对错。
Virtue Ethics: Rooted in Aristotle, this approach focuses on developing virtuous character traits (courage, wisdom, temperance) rather than following rules or calculating outcomes. The ultimate goal is eudaimonia — human flourishing. Visualise virtue as a skill you practice until it becomes second nature.
德性伦理：源于亚里士多德，关注培养勇敢、智慧、节制等德性品质，而非遵循规则或计算后果。终极目标是 eudaimonia（人的繁荣）。形象记忆：德性像一门技艺，反复练习直到成为第二天性。
5. Meta-ethics | 元伦理学
Moral Realism: The view that moral facts exist independently of our beliefs or attitudes, much like physical facts. When you say ‘murder is wrong’, according to the realist you are stating an objective truth. Contrast it with how we treat facts about shapes or numbers: the same independence.
道德实在论：认为道德事实独立于我们的信念或态度而存在，类似物理事实。当你说“谋杀是错误的”，实在论者认为你陈述了一个客观真理。把它想象成道德界的“形状”或“数字”那样独立存在。
Cognitivism vs Non-cognitivism: Cognitivism argues that moral statements express beliefs and can be true or false. Non-cognitivism claims that moral language expresses emotions or prescriptions, not propositions. Emotivism (Ayer) says ‘lying is wrong’ merely vents disapproval. Remember cognition = can be true/false; non-cognition = more like a cheer or boo.
认知主义与非认知主义：认知主义主张道德陈述表达信念，可以有真假。非认知主义认为道德语言表达情感或指令，不具有命题内容。艾耶尔的情感主义说“说谎是错的”只是宣泄不赞同。速记：认知能判真伪，非认知更像喝彩或叫倒好。
The Naturalistic Fallacy: G. E. Moore’s charge that it is a mistake to define ‘good’ in terms of any natural property, such as pleasure. The open-question argument shows that we can always meaningfully ask whether something natural is good. It forbids moving from ‘is’ to ‘ought’ without justification. Picture a policeman stopping you at the is-ought border.
自然主义谬误：摩尔指责用任何自然属性（如快乐）来定义“善”都是错误的。开放问题论证表明，我们总能有意义地追问某种自然属性是不是善。它禁止无理由地从“是”推出“应当”。想象一位警察在“是”与“应当”的边界拦住你。
6. Political Philosophy | 政治哲学
Social Contract: A hypothetical agreement through which individuals consent to form a state and obey its laws in exchange for security and order. Hobbes, Locke and Rousseau each offered a distinctive version. Think of it as the ‘founding subscription’ you sign for the benefits of civil society.
社会契约：一种假设性协议，个体同意组建国家并遵守其法律，以换取安全和秩序。霍布斯、洛克和卢梭各自提出不同版本。可以理解为加入文明社会的“创始订阅协议”。
Negative Liberty & Positive Liberty: Isaiah Berlin distinguished negative liberty (freedom from interference) from positive liberty (freedom to be one’s own master). Negative liberty is about absence of obstacles; positive liberty is about self-realisation. Recall ‘negative’ like a photo negative: defined by what is not there; ‘positive’ as in actively shaping your life.
消极自由与积极自由：以赛亚·伯林区分消极自由（免于干涉的自由）和积极自由（成为自己主人的自由）。消极自由关乎障碍的不存在，积极自由关乎自我实现。记法：消极像底片，由缺失决定；积极是主动塑造自己的人生。
Justice as Fairness: John Rawls’ theory of justice, developed behind a ‘veil of ignorance’. Under this thought experiment, rational individuals would choose principles guaranteeing equal basic liberties and permitting inequalities only if they benefit the least advantaged (difference principle). Imagine designing a society without knowing your own place in it.
正义即公平：罗尔斯的正义理论，在“无知之幕”下推导出来。这一思想实验中，理性个人会选择确保平等基本自由的原则，并只允许那些使最不利者获益的不平等（差异原则）。设想在你不知自己会是谁的情况下来设计社会。
7. Logic & Argumentation | 逻辑与论证
Deduction vs Induction: Deductive arguments aim for certainty; if the premises are true, the conclusion must follow necessarily. Inductive arguments aim for probability, inferring general patterns from specific observations. Deduction is like a mathematical proof; induction is like weather forecasting. Memory: deduct = ‘de-duce’ to pull out necessity; induct = ‘in-duce’ to build probable generalisations.
演绎与归纳：演绎论证追求必然性，前提真则结论必定为真。归纳论证追求或然性，从特殊观察推断一般模式。演绎像数学证明，归纳像天气预报。助记：“演绎”拉出必然结论；“归纳”引入概率性概括。
Validity & Soundness: A valid argument is one where the conclusion logically follows from the premises. A sound argument is a valid argument with all true premises. Validity is about structure; soundness is about truth. Only sound arguments guarantee a true conclusion. Think of validity as a reliable pipe, soundness as the pipe carrying pure water.
有效性与可靠性：有效论证指结论从前提中逻辑地推出。可靠论证是有效且所有前提为真的论证。有效性关乎结构，可靠性关乎真理。只有可靠论证能保证结论真。把有效性想成一根好管道，可靠性是这根管道里流淌着净水。
Analytic vs Synthetic: Analytic truths are true purely in virtue of meaning, e.g. ‘All bachelors are unmarried’. Synthetic truths are true because of how the world is, e.g. ‘The cat is on the mat’. Kant used this distinction to frame his critical project. Recall analytic = true by definition; synthetic = need to check the ‘synthetic’ fabric of experience.
分析命题与综合命题：分析真命题仅凭意义为真，如“所有单身汉都未婚”。综合真命题因世界的情况为真，如“猫在垫子上”。康德用这一区分构建了批判哲学。速记：分析只需拆解词义，综合需要审视经验的“合成”面料。
8. Philosophy of Religion | 宗教哲学
Teleological Argument: Also known as the design argument, it claims that the complexity and apparent purpose in nature point to an intelligent designer. Paley’s watchmaker analogy is the classic example. Hume’s criticisms highlight the leap from parts to cosmic architect. Label it as ‘teleological = looking at the telos (purpose)’.
设计论论证：又称目的论论证，认为自然界的复杂性和表面的目的性指向一位智慧设计者。佩利的手表类比是经典例子。休谟的批判揭示了从部件到宇宙设计者的跳跃。记住“目的论”就是寻找 telos（目的）。
Cosmological Argument: This family of arguments traces the existence of the universe back to a first cause or necessary being. Aquinas’ Five Ways include versions based on motion, causation and contingency. The Kalam version emphasises the universe’s beginning. Think of cosmology as searching for the ‘first domino’ of existence.
宇宙论论证：这类论证将宇宙的存在回溯到第一因或必然存在。阿奎那的五路论证包含基于运动、因果和偶然性的版本。卡拉姆版本强调宇宙的开端。把宇宙论想象成寻找存在的“第一块多米诺骨牌”。
Problem of Evil: The apparent inconsistency between an all-powerful, all-loving God and the existence of evil and suffering. The logical problem claims it is impossible for both to coexist; the evidential problem treats evil as powerful evidence against such a God. A theodicy attempts to resolve the tension. Picture the classic triad: God’s goodness, power, and evil forming a dissonant chord.
恶的问题：全能全善的上帝与世间存在的恶和苦难之间的明显矛盾。逻辑问题声称两者不可能共存；证据问题将恶视为反对此番上帝的有力证据。神义论试图化解这一张力。想象经典三音：上帝的善、能力、恶构成一个刺耳的和弦。
9. Ancient Greek Cornerstones | 古希腊哲学基石
Plato’s Forms: Perfect, unchanging, immaterial archetypes that constitute reality; particular objects in the sensible world are imperfect copies. The Form of the Good is the ultimate principle. Use the metaphor of a cookie cutter: Forms stamp reality onto the dough of the physical world.
柏拉图的理型：完美、不变、非物质的范型，构成真正的实在；可感世界中的个体事物是不完美的摹本。善的理型是最高原理。用模具比喻：理型像饼干模具在物理世界的面团上压出形状。
Aristotle’s Four Causes: To fully explain a thing, we need its material cause (what it is made of), formal cause (its essence or shape), efficient cause (the agent that brought it about), and final cause (its purpose or telos). E.g. a statue: bronze, form of the statue, sculptor, commemoration. Think of these as the four interrogators you must face to fully understand an object.
亚里士多德四因说：完全解释一事物需有其质料因、形式因、动力因和目的因。以雕像为例：青铜、雕像形态、雕刻家、纪念目的。可以想象它们是审问一个对象的四位调查官。
Socratic Method: Dialectical questioning that exposes contradictions in an interlocutor’s beliefs, aiming to lead them to deeper understanding or awareness of ignorance. Socrates compared himself to a midwife helping deliver ideas. Remember the method as a rigorous intellectual yoga that stretches and challenges assumptions.
苏格拉底方法：通过辩证诘问暴露对话者信念中的矛盾，引导其深化理解或认识自己的无知。苏格拉底自比助产士，帮助催生思想。把这种方法看作严谨的思想瑜伽，拉伸和挑战既有成见。
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