Understanding Firms in IGCSE Economics | 理解IGCSE经济学中的企业

📚 Understanding Firms in IGCSE Economics | 理解IGCSE经济学中的企业

In IGCSE Economics, a firm is any organisation that combines factors of production to produce goods and services for sale. Firms are central to the circular flow of income and to the supply side of a market.

在 IGCSE 经济学中，企业是任何将生产要素组合起来生产商品和服务以供销售的组织。企业处于收入循环流动的核心，也是市场供给方的重要组成部分。

Understanding firms helps you explain how prices are set, how resources are allocated, and why some industries are dominated by a few large businesses. This article covers the essential theory of firms that you need for the Cambridge IGCSE examination.

理解企业有助于你解释价格如何决定、资源如何配置，以及为什么某些行业被少数大企业主导。本文涵盖剑桥 IGCSE 考试所需的核心企业理论。

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1. What is a Firm? | 什么是企业？

A firm is a business organisation that hires factors of production (land, labour, capital and enterprise) to produce goods and services. The main purpose of a firm is to satisfy consumer wants, but it also aims to earn profit for its owners.

企业是一种商业组织，它雇用生产要素（土地、劳动、资本和企业家才能）来生产商品和服务。企业的主要目的是满足消费者需求，同时也为所有者赚取利润。

Firms can operate at different scales: a street vendor is a small firm, while a multinational company such as Samsung is a very large firm. In both cases, the fundamental principle is the same: inputs are transformed into outputs, which are then sold in a market.

企业可以以不同规模运营：街头小贩是小企业，而三星这样的跨国公司是规模很大的企业。两种情况的基本原理相同：投入转化为产出，然后拿到市场上出售。

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2. Types of Business Organisations | 企业组织的类型

There are several forms of business ownership. Each form has different characteristics related to ownership, liability and access to capital.

企业所有权有几种形式。每种形式在所有权、责任和融资渠道方面都有不同特征。

• Sole trader – owned by one person. The owner keeps all profit but has unlimited liability.

  个体经营 – 由一个人拥有。所有者保留全部利润，但承担无限责任。

• Partnership – owned by two or more people who share profits and decision-making. Partners also have unlimited liability in ordinary partnerships.

  合伙经营 – 由两个或更多人拥有，他们分享利润并共同决策。普通合伙中合伙人也承担无限责任。

• Private limited company (Ltd) – owned by shareholders, but shares are sold privately. Shareholders have limited liability.

  私营有限公司 – 由股东拥有，但股份私下出售。股东承担有限责任。

• Public limited company (Plc) – shares are sold to the public on a stock exchange. Shareholders have limited liability and can sell shares easily.

  上市公司 – 股份在证券交易所向公众出售。股东承担有限责任，可以方便地买卖股份。

• State-owned enterprise – owned and operated by the government, often in public utilities.

  国有企业 – 由政府拥有和经营，常见于公用事业领域。

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3. Objectives of Firms | 企业的目标

Firms may pursue several objectives depending on their size, ownership and market conditions. The traditional assumption is that firms aim to maximise profit, but modern firms often have wider goals.

企业可能会追求多种目标，具体取决于其规模、所有权和市场条件。传统假设是企业以利润最大化为目标，但现代企业通常有更广泛的目标。

The most common objectives are:

最常见的目标包括：

• Profit maximisation – producing at the output where the gap between total revenue and total cost is largest.

  利润最大化 – 在总收益与总成本差额最大的产量上进行生产。

• Revenue maximisation – selling as much as possible without making a loss, often to increase market share.

  收益最大化 – 在不亏损的情况下尽可能多销售，通常是为了提高市场份额。

• Growth and market share – expanding the firm to gain more bargaining power and higher long-term profits.

  成长与市场份额 – 扩张企业以获得更强的议价能力和更高的长期利润。

• Survival – especially important for small firms or in a recession.

  生存 – 对小型企业或经济衰退中的企业尤其重要。

• Social and environmental objectives – such as ethical sourcing, reducing carbon emissions or providing community jobs.

  社会与环境目标 – 例如道德采购、减少碳排放或为社区提供就业机会。

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4. Costs of Production | 生产成本

To produce goods, firms must pay costs. In economics, costs are classified into fixed costs and variable costs.

为了生产商品，企业必须支付成本。在经济学中，成本分为固定成本和可变成本。

Fixed costs do not change with output in the short run, for example rent, insurance and machinery depreciation. Variable costs change directly with output, such as raw materials and wages for casual workers.

固定成本在短期内不随产量变化，例如租金、保险费和机器折旧。可变成本随产量直接变化，例如原材料和临时工人工资。

• Total cost (TC) = fixed cost + variable cost.

  总成本 = 固定成本 + 可变成本。

• Average cost (AC) = total cost ÷ output.

  平均成本 = 总成本 ÷ 产量。

• Marginal cost (MC) = the extra cost of producing one more unit of output.

  边际成本 = 多生产一单位产出所增加的成本。

TC = TFC + TVC

总成本 = 总固定成本 + 总可变成本

The short run is a period when at least one factor of production is fixed. The long run is a period when all factors can be varied.

短期是指至少一种生产要素固定的时期。长期是指所有要素都可以变化的时期。

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5. Revenue | 收益

Revenue is the money a firm receives from selling its output. Like costs, revenue can be measured in total, average or marginal terms.

收益是企业从销售产出中获得的货币收入。与成本类似，收益可以用总量、平均量或边际量来衡量。

• Total revenue (TR) = price × quantity sold.

  总收益 = 价格 × 销售量。

• Average revenue (AR) = total revenue ÷ quantity sold. This is also the price per unit.

  平均收益 = 总收益 ÷ 销售量。也就是每单位的价格。

• Marginal revenue (MR) = the extra revenue from selling one more unit.

  边际收益 = 多销售一单位所增加的收益。

TR = P × Q

总收益 = 价格 × 数量

For a firm in a competitive market, the price is constant, so average revenue equals marginal revenue. For a firm with market power, the firm must lower its price to sell more, so marginal revenue falls below average revenue.

对于竞争市场中的企业，价格是恒定的，因此平均收益等于边际收益。对于拥有市场力量的企业，它必须降低价格才能卖出更多，因此边际收益低于平均收益。

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6. Profit and Loss | 利润与亏损

Profit is the reward to the entrepreneur for taking risks. It is calculated as total revenue minus total cost.

利润是对企业家承担风险的回报。它的计算方法是总收益减去总成本。

Profit = Total revenue − Total cost

利润 = 总收益 − 总成本

Economists distinguish between normal profit and abnormal (supernormal) profit. Normal profit is the minimum profit needed to keep a firm in the industry; it is treated as a cost of production. Abnormal profit is any profit above normal profit, which may occur in a monopoly or in the short run in a competitive market.

经济学家区分正常利润和超额（超常）利润。正常利润是使企业留在行业中的最低利润；它被视为一种生产成本。超额利润是超过正常利润的利润，可能出现在垄断中，或者竞争市场的短期中。

If total revenue is less than total cost, the firm makes a loss. A firm may continue to operate in the short run if it can cover its variable costs, because keeping the business running helps pay for some fixed costs. In the long run, however, the firm must cover all its costs to survive.

如果总收益小于总成本，企业就会出现亏损。如果企业能覆盖其可变成本，它可以继续在短期经营，因为继续运营有助于支付一些固定成本。然而在长期，企业必须覆盖所有成本才能生存。

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7. Economies of Scale | 规模经济

As a firm grows in the long run, its average cost of production tends to fall. This is known as economies of scale. Economies of scale can be internal or external.

随着企业在长期中成长，其平均生产成本往往会下降。这被称为规模经济。规模经济可以分为内部和外部两类。

Internal economies of scale arise from the growth of the firm itself:

内部规模经济源于企业自身的成长：

• Purchasing economies – buying raw materials in bulk at lower prices.

  采购经济 – 批量购买原材料以获得更低价格。

• Technical economies – using large, specialised machinery that increases efficiency.

  技术经济 – 使用大型专业机器以提高效率。

• Managerial economies – employing specialist managers to improve productivity.

  管理经济 – 雇用专业管理人员以提高生产率。

• Financial economies – larger firms can borrow money at lower interest rates because they are seen as less risky.

  融资经济 – 规模较大的企业被认为风险较低，能够以更低利率借款。

• Marketing economies – the cost of advertising is spread over more units of output.

  营销经济 – 广告成本分摊到更多单位的产品上。

External economies of scale arise from the growth of the whole industry, for example a better trained labour force or improved transport infrastructure in the area.

外部规模经济源于整个行业的发展，例如当地劳动力素质提高或交通基础设施改善。

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8. Diseconomies of Scale | 规模不经济

If a firm becomes too large, average cost may start to rise. This is called diseconomies of scale. These problems usually come from poor communication and coordination.

如果企业变得过大，平均成本可能开始上升。这被称为规模不经济。这些问题通常源于沟通和协调不善。

• Communication problems – messages may be distorted as they pass through many levels of hierarchy.

  沟通问题 – 信息在多层管理结构中传递时可能失真。

• Coordination problems – it becomes harder to manage different departments and ensure all parts work together.

  协调问题 – 管理不同部门并确保各部分协同运作变得更加困难。

• Low morale – workers in a huge firm may feel unimportant and less motivated, reducing productivity.

  士气低落 – 大公司中的工人可能感到自己无足轻重，积极性下降，从而降低生产率。

The point where average cost is at its minimum is called the minimum efficient scale. Beyond this point, the firm experiences diseconomies of scale.

平均成本达到最低点的产量称为最小有效规模。超过这一点后，企业就会出现规模不经济。

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9. Competition and Market Structure | 竞争与市场结构

Market structure describes the competitive environment in which a firm operates. The main market structures for IGCSE are perfect competition, monopolistic competition, oligopoly and monopoly.

市场结构描述了企业所处的竞争环境。IGCSE 涉及的主要市场结构包括完全竞争、垄断竞争、寡头垄断和完全垄断。

Feature | 特征	Perfect Competition | 完全竞争	Monopoly | 完全垄断
Number of firms | 企业数量	Very many | 非常多	One | 一个
Product | 产品	Identical | 同质	Unique | 唯一
Market power | 市场力量	None | 没有	Very high | 非常高
Barriers to entry | 进入壁垒	None | 没有	High | 高

In perfect competition, firms are price takers. In monopoly, the firm is a price maker and can earn abnormal profit in the long run because barriers to entry protect it from competitors.

在完全竞争中，企业是价格接受者。在完全垄断中，企业是价格制定者，并能由于进入壁垒阻止竞争者而在长期获得超额利润。

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10. Growth of Firms | 企业的成长

Firms can grow internally or externally. Internal growth is also called organic growth. It happens when a firm expands its own operations by selling more, opening new branches or developing new products.

企业可以通过内部或外部方式成长。内部成长也称为有机增长。它是指企业通过销售更多、开设新分店或开发新产品来扩大自身经营。

External growth occurs through integration with other firms. Integration may be:

外部成长通过与其他企业合并来实现。合并可以有以下类型：

• Horizontal integration – combining with a firm at the same stage of production, e.g. two car manufacturers merging.

  横向合并 – 与同一生产阶段的企业合并，例如两家汽车制造商合并。

• Vertical integration – combining with a firm at a different stage of production. Backward vertical integration is with a supplier; forward vertical integration is with a customer or retailer.

  纵向合并 – 与不同生产阶段的企业合并。后向纵向合并是与供应商合并；前向纵向合并是与客户或零售商合并。

• Conglomerate integration – combining with a firm in an unrelated industry, which diversifies risk.

  混合合并 – 与不相关行业的企业合并，这可以分散风险。

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11. Summary | 总结

A firm is a key decision-making unit in the economy. It must balance costs and revenue to achieve its objectives. Firms can grow to benefit from economies of scale, but excessive size can lead to inefficiency.

企业是经济中的关键决策单位。它必须平衡成本与收益以实现自身目标。企业可以通过成长获得规模经济，但规模过大可能导致低效率。

For the Cambridge IGCSE exam, remember the definitions of cost and revenue, the profit formula, and the advantages and disadvantages of growth. Practice drawing cost and revenue curves, and be ready to explain how different market structures affect firm behaviour.

对于剑桥 IGCSE 考试，请记住成本和收益的定义、利润公式，以及成长的优点和缺点。练习绘制成本和收益曲线，并准备好解释不同的市场结构如何影响企业行为。

Published by TutorHao | Economics Revision Series | aleveler.com

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