Workers | 劳动者 - aleveler.com

📚 Workers | 劳动者

In the Cambridge IGCSE Economics syllabus, ‘workers’ are studied as the human input in the production process. This article examines the demand for and supply of labour, how wages are determined, the roles of trade unions and minimum wages, and the reasons why some workers earn more than others.

在剑桥IGCSE经济学课程中，”劳动者”被作为生产过程中的人力投入来研究。本文考察劳动力的需求与供给、工资如何决定、工会与最低工资的作用，以及为什么有些劳动者的收入高于其他人。

1. Labour as a Factor of Production | 劳动力作为生产要素

Labour refers to the physical and mental effort that people contribute to the production of goods and services. It is one of the four factors of production, alongside land, capital and enterprise. The reward for labour is the wage or salary paid to the worker.

劳动力是指人们为生产商品和服务所付出的体力和脑力劳动。它与土地、资本和企业家才能一起构成四大生产要素。劳动力获得的报酬是支付给劳动者的工资或薪金。

The quantity of labour in an economy depends on the size of the working population, the number of hours people are willing to work, and the quality of their skills. The quality of labour, known as human capital, can be improved through education and training, making workers more productive.

一个经济体中劳动的数量取决于劳动人口的规模、人们愿意工作的时间，以及他们的技能水平。劳动的质量即人力资本，可以通过教育和培训得到提高，从而使劳动者更具生产能力。

2. Demand for Labour | 劳动力需求

The demand for labour is a derived demand. Firms do not employ workers for their own sake; they hire workers because the goods and services those workers produce can be sold for a profit. Thus, if the demand for a product rises, the demand for the workers who make it also tends to rise.

劳动力需求是一种派生需求。企业雇佣劳动者并非为了雇佣本身，而是因为劳动者生产的商品和服务可以出售获利。因此，如果对某产品的需求上升，对该产品制造者的需求也往往会上升。

The marginal revenue product (MRP) of a worker is the extra revenue a firm earns when it hires one more worker. A profit-maximising firm will continue to hire additional workers as long as the MRP of the next worker is greater than the wage that must be paid. The demand curve for labour is downward-sloping because, as wages fall, firms find it profitable to employ more workers.

劳动者的边际收益产品（MRP）是指企业每多雇佣一名劳动者所获得的额外收入。利润最大化的企业会继续雇佣更多的劳动者，只要下一名劳动者的MRP大于必须支付的工资。劳动力需求曲线向下倾斜，因为当工资下降时，企业会发现雇佣更多劳动者是有利可图的。

3. Supply of Labour | 劳动力供给

The supply of labour is the number of workers willing and able to work at a given wage rate. The supply curve for labour is usually upward-sloping: as wages rise, more people are attracted into the labour market, and existing workers may be willing to work overtime.

劳动力供给是在既定工资水平下愿意且能够工作的劳动者数量。劳动力供给曲线通常向上倾斜：随着工资上升，更多的人会被吸引进入劳动力市场，现有劳动者也可能愿意加班。

However, the supply of labour is not unlimited. The size of the labour force depends on population size, the age structure, migration and the proportion of people who choose to participate in the workforce, such as students and retired people. For particular occupations, the supply of labour is also affected by the qualifications and training required.

然而，劳动力供给并非无限。劳动力规模取决于人口总量、年龄结构、移民以及选择参与劳动力市场的人口比例，例如学生和退休人员。对于特定职业而言，劳动力供给还受到所需资格和培训的影响。

4. Wage Determination | 工资的决定

In a competitive labour market, the wage rate is determined by the interaction of the demand for and supply of labour. Where the two curves intersect, an equilibrium wage is established. Any excess supply or shortage of workers pushes the wage back towards this equilibrium.

在竞争性劳动力市场中，工资率由劳动力需求与供给的相互作用决定。两条曲线相交之处便形成均衡工资。任何劳动力过剩或短缺都会推动工资回到这一均衡水平。

Equilibrium wage: Demand for labour = Supply of labour
均衡工资：劳动力需求 = 劳动力供给

For example, if an economy experiences a boom and firms demand more workers, the demand curve shifts to the right. At the old wage, there is a shortage of labour, and firms compete by offering higher wages, pushing the equilibrium wage upwards.

例如，如果经济繁荣，企业需要更多劳动者，需求曲线向右移动。在原有工资水平下会出现劳动力短缺，企业通过提供更高工资来争夺劳动者，从而推动均衡工资上升。

5. Labour Productivity | 劳动生产率

Labour productivity measures the output produced per worker in a given time period. It can be calculated by dividing total output by the number of workers employed. Higher productivity means that a firm can produce more with the same number of workers.

劳动生产率衡量的是在给定时间内每名劳动者生产的产出。它可以用总产出除以劳动者人数来计算。更高的生产率意味着企业在相同的劳动者人数下可以生产更多产品。

Labour productivity = Total output ÷ Number of workers
劳动生产率 = 总产出 ÷ 劳动者人数

Productivity can be increased through better education and training, improved technology, and more efficient management. When workers are more productive, firms earn higher revenue, which can lead to higher wages and lower costs per unit of output.

生产率可以通过更好的教育和培训、改进的技术以及更高效的管理来提高。当劳动者的生产率提高时，企业获得更高的收入，这可能带来更高的工资和更低的单位产出成本。

6. Division of Labour and Specialisation | 分工与专业化

The division of labour occurs when the production process is broken down into separate tasks, with each worker specialising in one task. This specialisation allows workers to become more skilled at their particular job, reducing the time wasted moving between tasks.

劳动分工是指将生产过程分解为不同的任务，每个劳动者专门从事其中一项任务。这种专业化使劳动者在自己的特定工作中变得更加熟练，减少了在不同任务之间转换所浪费的时间。

Advantages of division of labour 分工的优势	Disadvantages of division of labour 分工的劣势
Higher output and efficiency 产出和效率提高	Repetitive work causes boredom 重复工作导致枯燥
Workers become skilled through practice 熟能生巧	Workers become overly dependent on one task 劳动者过度依赖单一任务
Less time lost between tasks 任务转换时间减少	If one worker is absent, production may stop 一名劳动者缺勤可能导致生产中断

Specialisation also applies to countries through international trade. A country that specialises in producing goods where it has a comparative advantage can trade with others, increasing total world output.

专业化也适用于国家之间的国际贸易。专门生产具有比较优势产品的国家可以通过与其他国家贸易，增加世界总产出。

7. Trade Unions | 工会

A trade union is an organisation of workers that aims to protect and improve the working conditions and pay of its members. Trade unions negotiate with employers on behalf of workers, a process known as collective bargaining.

工会是由劳动者组成的组织，旨在保护并改善其会员的工作条件和薪酬。工会代表劳动者与雇主进行谈判，这一过程称为集体谈判。

Trade unions use several methods to achieve their goals. They may negotiate with employers, take strike action, ban overtime, or organise public campaigns. Through collective bargaining, unions can increase wages above the competitive equilibrium. However, if wages are raised above the market-clearing level, firms may choose to employ fewer workers, leading to a fall in employment.

工会使用多种方法来实现其目标。它们可以与雇主谈判、采取罢工行动、拒绝加班或组织公众运动。通过集体谈判，工会可以将工资提高到竞争性均衡水平之上。然而，如果工资提高到市场出清水平以上，企业可能会选择雇佣更少的劳动者，从而导致就业下降。

8. Minimum Wage | 最低工资

A minimum wage is a legal floor set below which employers are not allowed to pay workers. The government introduces a minimum wage to protect low-paid workers and reduce poverty.

最低工资是法律规定的一条规定工资下限，雇主支付给劳动者的工资不得低于此水平。政府实施最低工资是为了保护低收入劳动者并减少贫困。

The effect of a minimum wage depends on where it is set relative to the equilibrium wage. If the minimum wage is set below the equilibrium wage, it has little effect. If it is set above the equilibrium wage, however, it creates an excess supply of labour: more workers are willing to work at the higher wage, but firms demand fewer workers.

最低工资的效果取决于其相对于均衡工资的位置。如果最低工资设定在均衡工资之下，则影响很小。但如果设定在均衡工资之上，就会出现劳动力过剩：在更高工资下，愿意工作的劳动者更多，但企业需求的劳动者更少。

Minimum wage above equilibrium → Excess supply of labour (unemployment)
最低工资高于均衡水平 → 劳动力过剩（失业）

Supporters argue that minimum wages raise living standards and motivate workers, while critics argue that they may reduce employment, especially for young and unskilled workers, and increase business costs.

支持者认为，最低工资提高了生活水平并激励了劳动者；而批评者则认为，最低工资可能会减少就业，尤其是对年轻和非熟练劳动者而言，并增加企业成本。

9. Wage Differentials | 工资差异

Wage differentials are the differences in wages between different occupations and between workers within the same occupation. These differences provide signals to workers about which sectors to enter and reward those with higher skills.

工资差异是不同职业之间以及同一职业内部不同劳动者之间的工资差别。这些差异向劳动者传递了进入何种行业的信息，并回报那些技能更高的劳动者。

Several factors explain why wages differ. Firstly, human capital: workers with more education and training earn higher wages. Secondly, the demand for labour is higher in skilled occupations, while the supply is limited by qualifications. Thirdly, risk and working conditions matter, so dangerous or unpleasant jobs pay compensating differentials. Finally, trade union power and discrimination can affect the wages that different groups receive.

多种因素解释了工资为何存在差异。其一，人力资本：受教育程度更高、培训更多的劳动者获得更高工资。其二，熟练职业的劳动力需求更高，而其供给受到资格要求的限制。其三，风险和劳动条件也很重要，危险或令人不快的岗位会支付补偿性工资差异。最后，工会力量以及歧视也会影响不同群体获得的工资。

10. Unemployment | 失业

Unemployment occurs when people who are willing and able to work at the going wage rate cannot find a job. The unemployment rate is calculated as the number of unemployed workers divided by the labour force, multiplied by 100.

失业是指那些愿意且能够在现行工资水平下工作的人找不到工作的状况。失业率的计算方法是失业人数除以劳动力总数，再乘以100。

Unemployment rate = (Unemployed ÷ Labour force) × 100%
失业率 =（失业人数 ÷ 劳动力总数）× 100%

There are several types of unemployment. Frictional unemployment is short-term, caused by workers moving between jobs. Structural unemployment arises from changes in the structure of the economy, such as the decline of an industry. Cyclical unemployment is caused by a fall in aggregate demand during a recession, and seasonal unemployment occurs when demand for labour varies with the time of year.

失业有几种类型。摩擦性失业是短期失业，由劳动者在不同工作之间转换引起。结构性失业产生于经济结构的变化，例如某个行业的衰退。周期性失业由衰退期间总需求下降引起，而季节性失业则发生在劳动力需求随季节变化之时。

High unemployment imposes costs on workers through lost income and skills, and on the government through increased welfare payments and lower tax revenue.

高失业率使劳动者承受收入损失和技能退化，也使政府承担更高的福利支出和更低的税收收入。

11. Labour Mobility | 劳动力流动性

Labour mobility refers to the ease with which workers can move between jobs, occupations or geographical areas. Occupational mobility is the ability of workers to change the type of work they do, while geographical mobility is the willingness to move to a different region for work.

劳动力流动性是指劳动者在不同工作、职业或地区之间流动的难易程度。职业流动性是劳动者改变工作类型的能力，而地域流动性是劳动者愿意为工作迁往不同地区的意愿。

Labour mobility is increased by education and training, which give workers transferable skills. Mobility is reduced by housing costs, family ties, language barriers and differences in qualifications across countries. When labour is more mobile, the economy can respond more quickly to changes in the demand for different types of work.

教育和培训能提高劳动力流动性，因为它们使劳动者获得可迁移的技能。而住房成本、家庭纽带、语言障碍以及各国资格认定的差异则会降低流动性。当劳动力更具流动性时，经济体能够更快地应对不同类型工作需求的变化。

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Workers | 劳动者