Types and Roles of International Conservation Organizations | 国际保护组织的种类与作用

📚 Types and Roles of International Conservation Organizations | 国际保护组织的种类与作用

Biodiversity loss is a global crisis that no single country can solve alone. Migratory birds cross continents, ocean currents carry pollutants, and illegal wildlife traders operate across borders. International conservation organisations have therefore been established to coordinate policies, pool scientific expertise, channel funding and create legally binding agreements. In the CIE A-Level Biology syllabus, candidates are expected to describe the roles of organisations such as CITES, IUCN and WWF, and to evaluate their impact on biodiversity conservation.

生物多样性的丧失是一场没有任何单一国家能够独自解决的全球性危机。候鸟跨越大陆迁徙，洋流携带污染物，非法野生动植物贸易商跨国界运作。因此，国际保护组织应运而生，以协调政策、汇集科学专业知识、提供资金并制定具有法律约束力的协议。在CIE A-Level 生物学考纲中，考生需要描述CITES、IUCN和WWF等组织的作用，并评估它们对生物多样性保护的影响。

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1. Intergovernmental Organisations vs Non-Governmental Organisations | 政府间组织与非政府组织

International conservation organisations can be divided into two broad categories. Intergovernmental organisations (IGOs) are established by treaties or formal agreements between governments, giving them legal standing and authority to make binding decisions. By contrast, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) operate independently of government control, usually funded by membership fees, public donations and charitable grants. Both types are essential: IGOs provide legal frameworks and scientific consensus, while NGOs raise public awareness, run field projects and apply pressure on governments.

国际保护组织可分为两大类。政府间组织（IGOs）通过政府间的条约或正式协议建立，具有法律地位和作出具有约束力决定的权力。相比之下，非政府组织（NGOs）独立于政府控制运作，通常依靠会员费、公众捐款和慈善基金资助。这两类组织都至关重要：政府间组织提供法律框架和科学共识，而非政府组织则提高公众意识、开展实地项目并向政府施加压力。

The key differences between IGOs and NGOs are summarised below.

IGO与NGO的主要区别总结如下。

Feature | 特征	IGO (e.g. UNEP, IUCN) | 政府间组织（如UNEP、IUCN）	NGO (e.g. WWF, BirdLife) | 非政府组织（如WWF、国际鸟盟）
Membership | 成员	Sovereign states | 主权国家	Individuals and private bodies | 个人及私人机构
Legal power | 法律权力	Can create binding treaties | 可制定具约束力的条约	No binding legal power | 无约束性法律权力
Funding | 资金来源	Government contributions | 政府缴纳款项	Donations and grants | 捐款与资助
Main advantage | 主要优势	Authority and enforcement | 权威性与执行力	Flexibility and public support | 灵活性与公众支持

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2. IUCN and the Red List of Threatened Species | IUCN与濒危物种红色名录

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is the world’s most comprehensive global authority on the conservation status of species. It is unusual in that it operates as a union of both government and civil society organisations, with over 1,400 member organisations. Its greatest contribution to A-Level Biology is the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, a global database that categorises species according to their risk of extinction.

国际自然保护联盟（IUCN）是全球物种保护状况方面最权威的综合机构。它的独特之处在于它是一个既包括政府又包括民间社会组织的联盟，拥有超过1400个成员组织。它对A-Level 生物学的最大贡献是《IUCN濒危物种红色名录》，这是一份根据物种灭绝风险对其进行分类的全球数据库。

The Red List uses the following categories to describe extinction risk:

红色名录使用以下类别描述灭绝风险：

Code | 代码	Category | 类别	Meaning | 含义
EX	Extinct | 灭绝	No individuals remain | 已无存活个体
EW	Extinct in the Wild | 野外灭绝	Survives only in captivity | 仅人工饲养条件下存活
CR	Critically Endangered | 极危	Extremely high extinction risk | 灭绝风险极高
EN	Endangered | 濒危	Very high extinction risk | 灭绝风险很高
VU	Vulnerable | 易危	High extinction risk in the wild | 野外灭绝风险较高
NT	Near Threatened | 近危	Likely to become threatened soon | 可能在近期面临威胁
LC	Least Concern | 无危	Low risk of extinction | 灭绝风险低
DD	Data Deficient | 数据不足	Insufficient data for assessment | 数据不足以作出评估

To assign a category, IUCN scientists assess quantitative criteria such as population size, rate of population decline over three generations or ten years, geographic range area, degree of fragmentation and probability of extinction in the wild. For example, a species with a population of fewer than 2,500 mature individuals and a continuing decline may be listed as Endangered. You must remember that Red List categories are based on scientific data, not political or economic considerations, which gives the list its credibility.

为确定类别，IUCN科学家会评估量化标准，如种群数量、三代或十年内的种群下降速率、地理分布面积、破碎化程度以及野外灭绝概率。例如，一个成熟个体数少于2500且持续下降的物种可能被列为濒危。你必须记住，红色名录的类别基于科学数据而非政治或经济考量，这正是该名录具有公信力的原因。

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3. WWF – World Wide Fund for Nature | 世界自然基金会

WWF, formerly the World Wildlife Fund, is one of the world’s largest and most recognisable conservation NGOs. Founded in 1961, it uses the giant panda as its symbol because the panda is a flagship species: a charismatic animal that attracts public attention and funding, thereby protecting the entire ecosystem in which it lives. WWF works in nearly 100 countries and has more than 5 million supporters worldwide.

WWF（世界自然基金会），前身为世界野生动物基金会，是全球规模最大、最知名的保护非政府组织之一。它成立于1961年，以大熊猫为标志，因为大熊猫是旗舰物种：一种具有吸引力的动物，能够吸引公众关注和资金，从而保护它所在的整个生态系统。WWF在近100个国家开展工作，在全球拥有超过500万支持者。

WWF focuses on six major goals: forests, oceans, wildlife, food, climate and freshwater. Its activities include establishing and managing protected areas, restoring degraded habitats, combating poaching through anti-trafficking networks, promoting sustainable agriculture and fisheries, and engaging local communities in conservation. For example, WWF’s work in the Himalayas supports snow leopard conservation by providing livestock insurance to reduce retaliatory killing by herders.

WWF的重点涉及六大领域：森林、海洋、野生动物、食物、气候和淡水。其活动包括建立和管理保护区、恢复退化的栖息地、通过反走私网络打击偷猎、推广可持续农业和渔业，以及让当地社区参与保护。例如，WWF在喜马拉雅山区的雪豹保护工作中，通过为牧民提供牲畜保险来减少报复性猎杀。

Unlike an IGO, WWF cannot pass laws or sign treaties. Instead, its power lies in raising public awareness, conducting scientific research, lobbying governments and businesses, and delivering on-the-ground conservation projects. In exam answers, you should describe WWF as an NGO that complements the legal frameworks established by IGOs.

与政府间组织不同，WWF不能立法或签署条约。它的力量在于提高公众意识、开展科学研究、游说政府和企业，以及实施实地保护项目。在考试作答中，你应将WWF描述为一个非政府组织，它补充了政府间组织建立的法律框架。

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4. CITES – Regulating International Wildlife Trade | CITES——管制国际野生动植物贸易

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international agreement between governments, first signed in Washington, D.C. in 1973. Its purpose is to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival. CITES is legally binding on the parties that have ratified it, and it is administered by UNEP.

《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》（CITES）是政府间的国际协议，于1973年首次在华盛顿特区签署。其目的是确保野生动植物标本的国际贸易不威胁其生存。CITES对已批准该公约的缔约方具有法律约束力，并由UNEP负责管理。

CITES classifies species into three appendices according to the level of trade regulation needed:

CITES根据所需贸易管制程度将物种分为三个附录：

Appendix | 附录	Species included | 包含物种	Trade restriction | 贸易限制
I | 一	Threatened with extinction | 濒临灭绝	Commercial trade prohibited; permitted only in exceptional circumstances | 禁止商业贸易；仅在特殊情况下允许
II | 二	Not necessarily threatened but trade must be controlled | 未必濒危但贸易必须受管制	Trade allowed with export permits issued by the exporting country | 在出口国签发出口许可证的情况下允许贸易
III | 三	Protected in at least one country | 至少在一个缔约国内受保护	Other parties help control trade; permits may be required | 其他缔约方协助管制；可能需要许可证

Examples include the African elephant, listed in Appendix I, which makes the international ivory trade illegal in most cases; and the American alligator, listed in Appendix II, which allows regulated trade in farmed skins. A major strength of CITES is that it creates a global legal standard, making it harder for traders to exploit gaps between different national laws. However, CITES has no police force; enforcement depends on national governments, and illegal trade remains a serious problem in many regions.

例如，非洲象被列入附录一，使国际象牙贸易在大多数情况下为非法行为；美洲短吻鳄被列入附录二，允许对养殖皮进行受管制的贸易。CITES的一大优势是它创建了全球法律标准，使贸易商更难利用不同国家法律之间的空隙。然而，CITES没有警察力量；执法依赖于各国政府，非法贸易在许多地区仍是严重问题。

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5. Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) | 《生物多样性公约》

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was adopted at the United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. It is a legally binding treaty with three main objectives: the conservation of biological diversity, the sustainable use of its components, and the fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources. Over 190 countries are parties to the Convention.

《生物多样性公约》（CBD）于1992年在巴西里约热内卢举行的联合国地球峰会上通过。它是一项具有法律约束力的条约，有三大目标：保护生物多样性、可持续利用其组成部分，以及公平公正地分享利用遗传资源所产生的惠益。已有超过190个国家加入该公约。

Unlike CITES, which focuses narrowly on trade in endangered species, the CBD takes a broad ecosystem-based approach. It requires parties to develop national biodiversity strategies and action plans, identify and monitor important components of biodiversity, establish protected areas, promote the recovery of threatened species, and respect traditional knowledge of indigenous communities. The CBD also adopted the Aichi Biodiversity Targets in 2010, including the target to protect at least 17% of terrestrial and inland water areas by 2020.

与CITES仅关注濒危物种贸易不同，CBD采取了广泛的、基于生态系统的方法。它要求缔约方制定国家生物多样性战略和行动计划，识别并监测生物多样性的重要组成部分，建立保护区，促进受威胁物种的恢复，并尊重土著社区的传统知识。CBD还在2010年通过了《爱知生物多样性目标》，包括到2020年保护至少17%的陆地和内陆水域的目标。

For examinations, note the distinction: CITES deals with species trade; CBD covers all aspects of biodiversity, including genes, species and ecosystems, and links conservation with sustainable development.

考试注意区分：CITES处理物种贸易问题；CBD涵盖生物多样性的所有方面，包括基因、物种和生态系统，并将保护与可持续发展联系起来。

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6. RAMSAR Convention – Protecting Wetlands | 《拉姆萨尔公约》——保护湿地

The Ramsar Convention, formally the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat, was signed in Ramsar, Iran, in 1971. It is an intergovernmental treaty that provides a framework for national action and international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetlands. Each party must designate suitable wetlands for the List of Wetlands of International Importance, known as Ramsar sites.

《拉姆萨尔公约》，正式名称为《关于特别是作为水禽栖息地的国际重要湿地公约》，于1971年在伊朗拉姆萨尔签署。这是一项政府间条约，为保护和合理利用湿地提供了国家行动和国际合作的框架。每个缔约方必须指定合适的湿地列入《国际重要湿地名录》，即”拉姆萨尔湿地”。

Wetlands are among the most productive ecosystems on Earth. They perform vital functions such as purifying water, storing floodwater, recharging groundwater, and providing breeding and feeding grounds for migratory waterbirds. Globally, more than 2,400 Ramsar sites have been designated, covering over 250 million hectares. The Convention is significant because wetlands had previously been undervalued and drained for agriculture or construction. By placing wetlands on an international list, RAMSAR gives them formal protection and obliges governments to maintain their ecological character.

湿地是地球上生产力最高的生态系统之一。它们执行着重要的功能，如净化水质、储存洪水、补充地下水，以及为迁徙水禽提供繁殖和觅食地。全球已指定超过2400处拉姆萨尔湿地，覆盖超过2.5亿公顷。该公约之所以重要，是因为湿地此前一直被低估，并被排干用于农业或建设。通过将湿地列入国际名录，拉姆萨尔公约赋予它们正式保护，并要求各国政府维持其生态特征。

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7. UNESCO – World Heritage Sites and Biosphere Reserves | 联合国教科文组织——世界遗产地与生物圈保护区

The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) designates World Heritage Sites under the 1972 World Heritage Convention. A natural World Heritage Site is an area of outstanding universal value, such as the Great Barrier Reef, the Galápagos Islands or the Serengeti National Park. Once a site is listed, the host country is committed to protecting it for future generations, and the international community may assist with funding and expertise when the site is threatened.

联合国教育、科学及文化组织（UNESCO）根据1972年《世界遗产公约》指定世界遗产地。自然世界遗产地是具有突出普遍价值的区域，如大堡礁、加拉帕戈斯群岛或塞伦盖蒂国家公园。一旦遗址被列入名录，所在国就有义务为子孙后代保护它，当遗址受到威胁时，国际社会可以提供资金和技术援助。

UNESCO also establishes biosphere reserves

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