GCSE CCEA Biology: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE CCEA 生物：期末复习提纲

📚 GCSE CCEA Biology: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE CCEA 生物：期末复习提纲

This revision checklist covers all the major topics in the CCEA GCSE Biology specification. Use it to structure your final preparation, testing yourself on key definitions, processes, equations and required practicals. Each section highlights the core concepts you must master for the end-of-term examination.

这份复习提纲涵盖了CCEA GCSE生物课程中的所有主要主题。用它来规划你的期末准备，自测关键定义、过程、方程式和必做实验。每一节都强调了你必须掌握的期末核心概念。

1. Cells and Biological Molecules | 细胞与生物分子

All living organisms are made of cells. Animal and plant cells are eukaryotic, meaning they have a nucleus containing genetic material. Both contain cytoplasm, a cell membrane, mitochondria and ribosomes. Plant cells also have a cellulose cell wall, a large permanent vacuole and chloroplasts for photosynthesis. Bacterial cells are prokaryotic – they lack a true nucleus and instead have a single loop of DNA free in the cytoplasm, often accompanied by small rings called plasmids.

所有生物都由细胞构成。动物和植物细胞是真核细胞，意味着它们拥有含有遗传物质的细胞核。二者都有细胞质、细胞膜、线粒体和核糖体。植物细胞还有纤维素细胞壁、一个大的永久液泡以及用于光合作用的叶绿体。细菌细胞是原核细胞——它们没有真正的细胞核，而是有一条裸露在细胞质中的环状DNA，通常还伴有称为质粒的小环状DNA。

Microscopy calculations are essential. Magnification equals the size of the image divided by the real size of the object. You must be able to convert units (mm, µm, nm) and interpret scale bars. In a required practical, you will have prepared onion epidermis or cheek cells on a slide and viewed them under a light microscope, using iodine or methylene blue to stain structures.

显微镜计算至关重要。放大倍数等于图像大小除以物体的实际大小。你必须能换算单位（毫米、微米、纳米）并读懂比例尺。在一个必做实验中，你需要制作洋葱表皮或口腔上皮细胞的临时装片，用碘液或亚甲蓝染色后在光学显微镜下观察。

Biological molecules include carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Carbohydrates are made of simple sugars such as glucose. Starch is a polysaccharide used as an energy store in plants. Proteins are long chains of amino acids and are essential for growth and repair. Lipids are fats and oils that provide insulation and long-term energy storage. Food tests are key practicals: Benedict’s reagent tests for reducing sugars, iodine solution for starch, biuret reagent for proteins and the ethanol emulsion test for lipids.

生物分子包括碳水化合物、脂质和蛋白质。碳水化合物由葡萄糖这样的单糖构成。淀粉是一种多糖，是植物中的储能物质。蛋白质是氨基酸长链，对生长和修复至关重要。脂质是脂肪和油，提供保温和长期能量储存。食物检测是重要的实验：本尼迪克特试剂检测还原糖，碘液检测淀粉，双缩脲试剂检测蛋白质，乙醇乳化试验检测脂质。

2. Photosynthesis and Plant Nutrition | 光合作用与植物营养

Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and algae convert light energy into chemical energy, stored in glucose. It takes place in chloroplasts, where chlorophyll absorbs sunlight. The word and symbol equations are central to the exam.

光合作用是植物和藻类将光能转化为储存在葡萄糖中的化学能的过程。它发生在叶绿体中，叶绿素在此吸收阳光。文字方程式和符号方程式是考试核心。

Photosynthesis word equation: carbon dioxide + water → glucose + oxygen (in the presence of light and chlorophyll)
Symbol equation: 6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

光合作用文字方程式：二氧化碳 + 水 → 葡萄糖 + 氧气（在光和叶绿素存在下）
符号方程式：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂

Limiting factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis include light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration and temperature. At low light intensity, the rate increases linearly until another factor becomes limiting. A practical investigation often uses pondweed to measure oxygen bubble production over time. You must be able to interpret graphs with plateaus and explain how increasing temperature initially speeds up enzyme action but eventually denatures them.

影响光合作用速率的限制因素包括光照强度、二氧化碳浓度和温度。在低光照强度下，速率线性增加，直到另一个因素成为限制。一次常见的实验探究是用水蕴草测量一段时间内的氧气气泡产量。你必须会解读带平台的曲线图，并解释升温起初如何加快酶的作用，但最终会使酶变性。

Plants obtain mineral ions from the soil through root hair cells by active transport. Nitrates are needed to make amino acids and proteins; magnesium is required to produce chlorophyll. Deficiencies cause stunted growth and chlorosis (yellowing of leaves).

植物通过根毛细胞的主动运输从土壤中吸收矿质离子。硝酸盐用来制造氨基酸和蛋白质；镁是合成叶绿素所必需的。缺乏这些元素会导致生长迟缓及失绿症（叶片发黄）。

3. Human Nutrition and Digestion | 人体营养与消化

A balanced diet provides carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, dietary fibre and water. Carbohydrates are the main source of energy; lipids store energy and insulate organs; proteins are used for building cells and tissues. Vitamins such as vitamin C (for connective tissue) and vitamin D (for calcium absorption) are essential, as are minerals like iron (for haemoglobin) and calcium (for bones and teeth).

均衡膳食提供碳水化合物、脂质、蛋白质、维生素、矿物质、膳食纤维和水。碳水化合物是主要的能量来源；脂质储存能量并保护器官；蛋白质用于构建细胞和组织。维生素如维生素C（用于结缔组织）和维生素D（促进钙吸收）不可或缺，铁（用于血红蛋白）和钙（用于骨骼和牙齿）等矿物质亦然。

Digestion is the breakdown of large, insoluble food molecules into small, soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the blood. Mechanical digestion occurs through chewing in the mouth and churning in the stomach. Chemical digestion relies on enzymes. Amylase (produced by salivary glands and pancreas) breaks starch into maltose in the mouth and small intestine. Proteases such as pepsin (stomach) and trypsin (pancreas) digest proteins into amino acids. Lipase (pancreas) splits lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, with the help of bile from the liver. Bile emulsifies fats, creating a larger surface area for lipase action, but bile is not an enzyme.

消化是将大的、不溶的食物分子分解为小的、可溶的、能被吸收进血液的分子的过程。物理消化通过口腔的咀嚼和胃的蠕动实现。化学消化依靠酶。淀粉酶（由唾液腺和胰腺产生）在口腔和小肠将淀粉分解为麦芽糖。蛋白酶如胃蛋白酶（胃）和胰蛋白酶（胰腺）将蛋白质消化为氨基酸。脂肪酶（胰腺）在肝脏分泌的胆汁帮助下将脂质分解为脂肪酸和甘油。胆汁能乳化脂肪，为脂肪酶提供更大的作用面积，但胆汁本身不是酶。

The small intestine is adapted for absorption with millions of villi and microvilli that provide a huge surface area. Villi have a thin epithelium, a rich blood capillary network and a lacteal for transporting absorbed fatty acids and glycerol via the lymphatic system.

小肠适应于吸收，拥有数百万的绒毛和微绒毛，提供了巨大的表面积。绒毛具有单层薄上皮、丰富的毛细血管网和一条乳糜管，乳糜管将吸收的脂肪酸和甘油通过淋巴系统运输。

4. Respiration and Gas Exchange | 呼吸与气体交换

Aerobic respiration releases energy from glucose in the presence of oxygen. It occurs in the mitochondria, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste. The equation must be memorised.

有氧呼吸在氧气存在下从葡萄糖中释放能量。它发生在线粒体中，产生二氧化碳和水作为废物。必须记住方程式。

Aerobic respiration: glucose + oxygen → carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O

有氧呼吸：葡萄糖 + 氧气 → 二氧化碳 + 水（+ 能量）
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O

Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen, releasing less energy. In animal cells and some bacteria, glucose is converted into lactic acid. In yeast and plant cells, it is converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide – an irreversible process used in baking and brewing. During vigorous exercise, muscle cells respire anaerobically, leading to an oxygen debt that must be repaid by continued deep breathing to oxidise lactic acid back to glucose in the liver.

无氧呼吸在没有氧气时发生，释放较少能量。在动物细胞和一些细菌中，葡萄糖转化为乳酸。在酵母和植物细胞中，葡萄糖转化为乙醇和二氧化碳——这是一个不可逆过程，用于烘焙和酿造。剧烈运动时，肌肉细胞进行无氧呼吸，造成氧债，必须通过持续深呼吸偿还，以便肝脏将乳酸重新氧化成葡萄糖。

The human gas exchange system moves air into and out of the lungs. Air passes through the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles to reach alveoli. Alveoli are adapted for efficient gas exchange: they have very thin walls (one cell thick), a huge total surface area, a moist lining and a dense network of capillaries. Breathing involves the diaphragm and intercostal muscles. During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and flattens, the intercostal muscles contract to raise the rib cage, increasing the volume of the thorax and drawing air in.

人体气体交换系统将空气吸入和呼出肺部。空气通过气管、支气管和细支气管到达肺泡。肺泡适应于高效气体交换：它们壁极薄（仅一个细胞厚），总表面积巨大，内壁湿润，且有密集的毛细血管网。呼吸涉及膈肌和肋间肌。吸气时，膈肌收缩变平，肋间肌收缩提起肋骨，增大胸廓容积，将空气吸入。

5. Nervous System and Hormones | 神经系统与激素

The nervous system uses electrical impulses to enable rapid, precise responses. A reflex arc is a rapid, automatic response to a stimulus that protects the body from harm. It involves a receptor, sensory neurone, relay neurone in the spinal cord, motor neurone and an effector (a muscle or gland). The synapse is a gap between neurones where chemicals called neurotransmitters transmit the impulse.

神经系统利用电冲动做出快速、精准的反应。反射弧是对刺激的快速自动反应，可保护身体免受伤害。它涉及感受器、感觉神经元、脊髓中的中间神经元、运动神经元和效应器（肌肉或腺体）。突触是神经元之间的间隙，在此处称为神经递质的化学物质传递冲动。

Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands and transported in the blood to target organs. Their effects are slower but longer lasting than nervous responses. Insulin and glucagon control blood glucose levels. After a meal, the pancreas releases insulin, which stimulates the liver and muscle cells to convert excess glucose into glycogen for storage. When blood glucose falls, the pancreas secretes glucagon, prompting the liver to break glycogen back into glucose and release it into the blood.

激素是由内分泌腺产生的化学信使，通过血液运送到靶器官。其作用比神经反应慢，但更持久。胰岛素和胰高血糖素控制血糖水平。餐后，胰腺释放胰岛素，刺激肝细胞和肌肉细胞将多余的葡萄糖转化为糖原储存。当血糖降低时，胰腺分泌胰高血糖素，促使肝脏将糖原分解回葡萄糖并释放入血。

The eye is a common example of a sensory organ. The retina contains light-sensitive rods and cones. The lens changes shape to focus light onto the retina via accommodation; the iris controls the amount of light entering by adjusting the size of the pupil. In bright light, circular muscles contract and radial muscles relax, narrowing the pupil.

眼睛是感觉器官的常见例子。视网膜含有感光的视杆细胞和视锥细胞。晶状体通过调节改变形状，将光线聚焦于视网膜；虹膜通过调节瞳孔大小控制进光量。在强光下，环状肌收缩、辐射肌舒张，使瞳孔缩小。

6. Homeostasis and Excretion | 体内平衡与排泄

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a constant internal environment. Thermoregulation keeps body temperature around 37 °C. The skin plays a key role: when too hot, arterioles near the surface dilate (vasodilation), increasing blood flow to the skin and heat loss; sweat glands secrete sweat that evaporates, cooling the body. When too cold, vasoconstriction reduces blood flow, shivering generates heat, and hairs stand on end to trap an insulating layer of air.

体内平衡是指维持稳定的内环境。体温调节将体温维持在37 °C左右。皮肤起关键作用：当过热时，毛细血管扩张（血管舒张），增加流向皮肤的血流量而散热；汗腺分泌汗液，蒸发后使身体冷却。过冷时，血管收缩减少血流量，战栗产生热量，毛发竖立以锁住保温的空气层。

The kidneys excrete waste products and regulate water balance. Blood arrives at the glomerulus under high pressure, forcing small molecules (water, urea, ions, glucose) into the Bowman’s capsule. This filtrate passes through the nephron where all glucose and some ions are reabsorbed by active transport. Water reabsorption is controlled by ADH (antidiuretic hormone). When the blood is too concentrated, the pituitary gland releases more ADH, making the collecting duct more permeable to water so more water is reabsorbed, producing concentrated urine.

肾脏排出废物并调节水平衡。血液在高压下到达肾小球，迫使小分子（水、尿素、离子、葡萄糖）进入鲍曼氏囊。滤液流经肾单位时，所有葡萄糖和部分离子通过主动运输被重吸收。水的重吸收由抗利尿激素（ADH）控制。当血液过于浓缩时，垂体释放更多ADH，使集合管对水的通透性增强，从而重吸收更多水，产生浓缩的尿液。

7. DNA, Genetics and Cell Division | DNA、遗传学与细胞分裂

DNA is a double helix polymer made up of nucleotides. Each nucleotide consists of a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group and one of four bases: adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (C) and guanine (G). The bases pair specifically: A pairs with T and C pairs with G. A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a particular protein. The order of bases determines the sequence of amino acids in the protein.

DNA是一种双螺旋结构的聚合物，由核苷酸组成。每个核苷酸包含一个脱氧核糖、一个磷酸基团和四种碱基之一：腺嘌呤(A)、胸腺嘧啶(T)、胞嘧啶(C)和鸟嘌呤(G)。碱基严格配对：A与T配对，C与G配对。基因是编码特定蛋白质的一段DNA。碱基的顺序决定了蛋白质中氨基酸的序列。

Mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells for growth and repair. It involves one round of division after DNA replication, maintaining the diploid chromosome number. Meiosis produces four genetically varied haploid gametes (sperm or egg cells). It involves two divisions and is essential for sexual reproduction. Gametes contain half the number of chromosomes (haploid), so that fertilisation restores the diploid number.

有丝分裂产生两个遗传上完全相同的子细胞，用于生长和修复。它在DNA复制后进行一轮分裂，保持二倍体染色体数目。减数分裂产生四个遗传变异了的单倍体配子（精子或卵细胞）。它包含两次分裂，是有性生殖所必需的。配子含有半数染色体（单倍体），这样受精后便能恢复正常的二倍体数目。

Key genetic terms: homozygous (two identical alleles), heterozygous (two different alleles), dominant, recessive, genotype and phenotype. Monohybrid inheritance can be predicted using Punnett squares. For example, crossing two heterozygous parents (Bb × Bb) gives a 3:1 phenotypic ratio for a dominant-recessive trait.

重要遗传学术语：纯合子（两个相同等位基因）、杂合子（两个不同等位基因）、显性、隐性、基因型和表型。单基因遗传可用庞纳特方格预测。例如，两个杂合亲本（Bb × Bb）杂交，对于显隐性性状会出现3:1的表型比例。

8. Evolution, Variation and Natural Selection | 进化、变异与自然选择

Variation within a species can be genetic, environmental or a combination of both. Mutations are changes in the DNA base sequence and are the original source of genetic variation. Most mutations have no effect or are harmful, but occasionally they can produce a beneficial trait that improves survival chances.

物种内的变异可以是遗传的、环境的或二者共同影响的。突变是DNA碱基序列的改变，是遗传变异的原始来源。大多数突变没有影响或是有害的，但偶尔也会产生有利于提高生存机会的有利性状。

Natural selection operates if there is variation, a struggle for survival and differential reproductive success. Individuals with advantageous alleles are more likely to survive, reproduce and pass on those alleles to the next generation. Over many generations, this changes the frequency of alleles in the population, which can lead to evolution. Antibiotic resistance in bacteria is a clear example: a few bacteria naturally carry resistance genes; when antibiotics kill the non-resistant strains, resistant bacteria survive and multiply, making the infection harder to treat.

如果存在变异、生存竞争和繁殖成功率差异，自然选择便会发生作用。拥有有利等位基因的个体更有可能存活、繁殖并将这些等位基因传给后代。经过多个世代，种群中的等位基因频率发生改变，从而导致进化。细菌的抗生素抗性是一个清晰的例子：少数细菌天生携带抗性基因；当抗生素杀死非抗性菌株时，抗性细菌存活并繁殖，使得感染更难治疗。

Selective breeding (artificial selection) is the process by which humans breed plants and animals for particular desired traits, such as disease resistance, high yield or docility. Over time this reduces genetic diversity and can lead to inherited health problems. Genetic engineering is a modern technique where a gene from one organism is transferred into another to introduce a new characteristic, e.g. inserting the human insulin gene into bacteria to produce insulin for diabetics.

选择育种（人工选择）是人类为获得特定理想性状，如抗病性、高产量或温顺性格，而对动植物进行繁殖的过程。长此以往会降低遗传多样性，并可能导致遗传健康问题。基因工程是一种现代技术，把一种生物的基因转移到另一种生物中以引入新性状，例如将人类胰岛素基因插入细菌，为糖尿病患者生产胰岛素。

9. Ecology, Food Chains and Cycles | 生态学、食物链与循环

An ecosystem is made up of communities of living organisms interacting with each other and their abiotic environment. Producers (plants and algae) convert light energy into chemical energy via photosynthesis. Consumers obtain energy by eating other organisms. Decomposers such as bacteria and fungi break down dead matter, recycling nutrients.

生态系统由生活在一起的生物群落及其与非生物环境的相互作用组成。生产者（植物和藻类）通过光合作用将光能转化为化学能。消费者通过食用其他生物获取能量。分解者如细菌和真菌分解死物，循环营养物质。

Food chains and webs show the transfer of energy and matter. At each trophic level, about 90% of energy is lost through heat, movement and waste, so biomass and energy decrease along the chain. Pyramids of biomass illustrate this. Carbon is cycled through photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition and combustion. Nitrogen is recycled by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in root nodules of legumes, nitrifying bacteria in soil, and decomposers that convert protein and urea into ammonium compounds.

食物链和食物网展示能量和物质的传递。在每个营养级，约有90%的能量以热量、运动和排泄物形式流失，因此生物量和能量沿食物链递减。生物量金字塔正是描绘这一点。碳通过光合作用、呼吸、分解和燃烧循环。氮元素由豆科植物根瘤中的固氮菌、土壤中的硝化细菌以及将蛋白质和尿素转化为铵化合物的分解者进行循环。

Fieldwork techniques are important practical skills. Sampling populations can be done with quadrats for stationary organisms (plants, limpets) and belt transects for distribution patterns along an environmental gradient. Capture–mark–recapture is used for motile animals like woodlice, using the Lincoln index to estimate population size. You must be able to evaluate reliability and validity of sampling methods.

野外工作是重要的实验技能。对于固着生物（植物、帽贝）可用样方进行种群取样，沿环境梯度的分布规律则可用样带。对于潮虫等活动动物，可使用捕捉-标记-重捕法，借助林肯指数估算种群大小。你必须会评价取样方法的可靠性和有效性。

10. Health, Disease and Biotechnology | 健康、疾病与生物技术

Disease can be caused by pathogens such as viruses, bacteria, fungi and protists. The body defends itself with physical barriers (skin, mucus, cilia), chemical defences (stomach acid, lysozyme in tears) and the immune system. White blood cells engulf pathogens (phagocytosis) and produce antitoxins and antibodies. Each antibody is specific to a particular pathogen’s antigen. Lymphocytes produce memory cells that provide long-term immunity, which is the principle behind vaccination.

疾病可由病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物等病原体引起。身体通过物理屏障（皮肤、黏液、纤毛）、化学防御（胃酸、泪液中的溶菌酶）和免疫系统保护自己。白细胞吞噬病原体（吞噬作用），并产生抗毒素和抗体。每种抗体对特定病原体的抗原具有专一性。淋巴细胞产生提供长期免疫的记忆细胞，这正是疫苗接种的原理。

Monoclonal antibodies are produced from a single clone of B lymphocytes fused with a myeloma cell. They can be used in pregnancy tests, to diagnose diseases, and to target cancer cells. However, they raise ethical considerations and have some side effects.

单克隆抗体是由B淋巴细胞与骨髓瘤细胞融合而成的单一克隆制备的。它们可用于验孕、疾病诊断以及靶向癌细胞。然而，单克隆抗体的使用存在伦理考量，并伴有一些副作用。

Biotechnology harnesses microorganisms for making food (yoghurt using bacteria, bread using yeast), producing biogas (methane) and biological washing powders containing enzymes. Industrial fermenters are used to grow large quantities of microorganisms under controlled conditions. Genetic modification allows us to produce human insulin and other therapeutic proteins. Ecological and ethical issues include potential gene escape, reduced biodiversity and patenting of life forms.

生物技术利用微生物制作食品（利用细菌制酸奶、利用酵母制面包）、生产沼气（甲烷）以及含酶的生物洗衣粉。工业发酵罐用于在受控条件下大量培养微生物。基因改造使我们能生产人胰岛素和其他治疗性蛋白质。生态与伦理问题包括潜在的基因逃逸、生物多样性降低以及生命形式的专利化。

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