📚 IB CIE Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | IB CIE 化学：期末复习提纲
A well-structured revision plan is key to mastering the vast content of IB and CIE Chemistry. This checklist distills the essential topics, equations and concepts you must review before the end-of-term assessment. Work through each section systematically, checking off points as you go.
一份结构清晰的复习计划是掌握 IB 和 CIE 化学广博内容的关键。这份提纲提炼了期末考试前你必须复习的核心主题、方程和概念。请系统地学习每个部分，逐条核对完成。
1. Atomic Structure | 原子结构
Review the fundamental particles: protons, neutrons and electrons. Know their relative masses (1, 1, 1/1840) and charges (+1, 0, –1), and how they are arranged in the nuclear model.
复习基本粒子：质子、中子和电子。掌握它们的相对质量（1, 1, 1/1840）和电荷（+1, 0, –1），以及它们在原子核模型中的排布。
Understand atomic number (Z) and mass number (A), and be able to calculate the number of each subatomic particle in an atom or ion from its nuclide notation ⁴²X.
理解原子序数（Z）和质量数（A），并能从核素符号 ⁴²X 计算原子或离子中每种亚原子粒子的数目。
Explain the existence of isotopes as atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Recall how mass spectra are used to determine relative atomic masses from isotopic abundances.
解释同位素的存在，即质子数相同而中子数不同的同种原子。回忆如何利用质谱图根据同位素丰度计算相对原子质量。
Describe the electromagnetic spectrum and the relationship E = hν and c = νλ. Apply these equations to calculate the energy of a photon or the frequency/wavelength of light.
描述电磁波谱以及关系式 E = hν 和 c = νλ。应用这些方程计算光子能量或光的频率/波长。
State the electron configuration of atoms and ions up to Z = 36 using the Aufbau principle, Hund’s rule and the Pauli exclusion principle. Recall the shapes of s and p orbitals.
能够用构造原理、洪特规则和泡利不相容原理写出至 Z = 36 的原子和离子的电子排布式。记住 s 轨道和 p 轨道的形状。
Interpret successive ionisation energy graphs to deduce the electron configuration and group of an element. Explain the trends in first ionisation energy across Period 3 and down Group 2.
解读逐级电离能图以推断元素的电子排布和所在族。解释第三周期第一电离能的变化趋势以及第二族中电离能递减的原因。
2. Chemical Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构
Describe the formation of ionic bonds as the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Predict the formula of ionic compounds from the charges of the constituent ions, e.g. Mg²⁺ and Cl⁻ giving MgCl₂.
描述离子键的形成，即带相反电荷离子之间的静电吸引。根据组成离子的电荷预测离子化合物的化学式，如 Mg²⁺ 和 Cl⁻ 组成 MgCl₂。
Explain covalent bonding in terms of shared pairs of electrons. Draw Lewis structures for molecules and polyatomic ions, including those with double and triple bonds. Apply the octet rule and recognise exceptions such as BF₃.
用共用电子对解释共价键。绘制分子和多原子离子的路易斯结构，包括含有双键和三键的物种。应用八隅体规则并识别如 BF₃ 等例外情况。
Use VSEPR theory to predict the shapes of simple molecules and ions (linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, octahedral) and their bond angles, e.g. CH₄ (109.5°), NH₃ (107°), H₂O (104.5°).
运用 VSEPR 理论预测简单分子和离子的形状（直线形、平面三角形、四面体形、三角双锥形、八面体形）及键角，例如 CH₄ (109.5°)、NH₃ (107°)、H₂O (104.5°)。
Deduce the polarity of bonds using electronegativity values, and determine whether a molecule is polar or non-polar from its shape and bond polarities. Link molecular polarity to physical properties such as solubility and boiling point.
利用电负性值推断键的极性，并根据分子形状和键的极性判断分子是否有极性。将分子极性与溶解性、沸点等物理性质联系起来。
Describe metallic bonding as the attraction between a lattice of positive ions and delocalised electrons. Explain the electrical conductivity, malleability and high melting points of metals.
描述金属键，即正离子晶格与离域电子之间的吸引。解释金属的导电性、延展性和高熔点的原因。
Compare the structures of giant ionic, giant covalent (diamond, graphite, silicon dioxide) and simple molecular substances. Relate their structures to their observed properties, such as the conductivity of graphite due to delocalised electrons between layers.
比较巨型离子、巨型共价（金刚石、石墨、二氧化硅）和简单分子物质的晶体结构。将结构与其性质联系起来，如石墨因层间离域电子而导电。
3. Stoichiometry | 化学计量学
Define the mole as the amount of substance containing 6.02 × 10²³ specified particles. Use the relationship n = m/M to calculate reacting masses and yields.
定义摩尔为含有 6.02 × 10²³ 个指定微粒的物质的量。运用关系式 n = m/M 计算反应物质量与产率。
Determine empirical and molecular formulae from percentage composition by mass. Recognise that the molecular formula is a whole-number multiple of the empirical formula.
根据质量百分组成推求实验式和分子式。理解分子式是实验式的整数倍。
Balance chemical equations and use them to perform mole-ratio calculations. Identify the limiting reagent in a reaction and calculate the excess of other reactants.
配平化学方程式，并利用其进行物质的量之比计算。判断反应中的限量试剂，并计算其他反应物的过量情况。
Apply Avogadro’s law: equal volumes of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. Use the molar volume of an ideal gas at STP (22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹) or at RTP (24 dm³ mol⁻¹) in calculations.
应用阿伏伽德罗定律：同温同压下，相同体积的任何气体含有相同数目的分子。在计算中使用理想气体在 STP（22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹）或 RTP（24 dm³ mol⁻¹）下的摩尔体积。
Perform solution stoichiometry using the concentration equation c = n/V. Carry out dilution calculations and back titrations, interpreting the mole relationships step by step.
运用浓度公式 c = n/V 进行溶液化学计量学计算。执行稀释计算和返滴定计算，逐步分析物质的量关系。
4. Energetics and Thermochemistry | 热化学
Define enthalpy change (ΔH) as the heat transferred at constant pressure. Distinguish between exothermic (ΔH < 0) and endothermic (ΔH > 0) reactions using energy profile diagrams.
定义焓变（ΔH）为恒压下传递的热量。利用能量剖面图区分放热反应（ΔH < 0）和吸热反应（ΔH > 0）。
State Hess’s law and use it to calculate enthalpy changes that are difficult to measure directly, such as the enthalpy of formation or combustion via a thermochemical cycle.
陈述赫斯定律，并运用它计算难以直接测量的焓变，如通过热化学循环求算生成焓或燃烧焓。
Use average bond enthalpies to estimate ΔH for a reaction. Explain why these values are estimates rather than exact data, as bond enthalpies vary with molecular environment.
利用平均键焓估算反应的焓变。解释为何这些值是估算值而非精确数据，因为键焓会随分子环境变化。
Define standard enthalpy changes: ΔH°f (formation), ΔH°c (combustion), ΔH°neut (neutralisation). Write thermochemical equations including state symbols and standard conditions (298 K, 100 kPa).
定义标准焓变：ΔH°f（生成焓）、ΔH°c（燃烧焓）、ΔH°neut（中和焓）。书写包括状态符号和标准条件（298 K, 100 kPa）的热化学方程式。
Perform calorimetry calculations using q = mcΔT. Identify sources of error such as heat loss to the surroundings and suggest improvements like using a lid or bomb calorimeter.
运用 q = mcΔT 进行量热计算。识别热量损失到环境等误差来源，并提出改进措施，如使用盖子或弹式量热计。
Explain the concept of lattice enthalpy in the Born–Haber cycle for ionic compounds. Use the cycle to calculate lattice enthalpy or electron affinity, and relate the magnitude of lattice enthalpy to ionic charge and radius.
解释离子化合物的玻恩–哈伯循环中的晶格焓概念。利用循环计算晶格焓或电子亲和能，并将晶格焓的大小与离子电荷和半径相关联。
5. Chemical Kinetics | 化学动力学
Define rate of reaction as the change in concentration of a reactant or product per unit time. Sketch and interpret concentration–time graphs and rate–concentration graphs.
定义反应速率为单位时间内反应物或产物浓度的变化。绘制并解读浓度–时间图和速率–浓度图。
Describe the collision theory and state that for a reaction to occur, particles must collide with the correct orientation and with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy (Eₐ).
描述碰撞理论，指出为使反应发生，粒子必须以正确的取向碰撞，且碰撞能量必须等于或大于活化能（Eₐ）。
Explain how temperature, concentration, pressure and particle size affect the rate of reaction in terms of collision frequency and the proportion of particles exceeding Eₐ. Be able to sketch Maxwell–Boltzmann distributions showing the effect of temperature.
从碰撞频率和超过活化能的粒子比例的角度，解释温度、浓度、压力和颗粒大小如何影响反应速率。能够绘制麦克斯韦–玻尔兹曼分布图以体现温度的影响。
Deduce the order of reaction with respect to a given reactant from experimental data. Write the rate equation: rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ, and determine the overall order (m + n).
从实验数据推断反应对给定反应物的级数。书写速率方程：rate = k[A]ᵐ[B]ⁿ，并确定总级数（m + n）。
Understand the Arrhenius equation and its logarithmic form: ln k = –Eₐ/(RT) + ln A. Use an Arrhenius plot of ln k versus 1/T to calculate activation energy.
理解阿伦尼乌斯方程及其对数形式：ln k = –Eₐ/(RT) + ln A。利用 ln k 对 1/T 的 Arrhenius 图计算活化能。
6. Chemical Equilibrium | 化学平衡
Define dynamic equilibrium as the state in a closed system where the forward and reverse reactions occur at the same rate, so concentrations remain constant.
定义动态平衡为密闭系统中正向和逆向反应速率相等的状态，此时各物质浓度保持不变。
State Le Châtelier’s principle and predict how changes in concentration, pressure (for gases) and temperature shift the position of equilibrium. Link these shifts to industrial processes such as the Haber process.
陈述勒沙特列原理，并预测浓度、压力（对气体）和温度的变化如何使平衡位置移动。将这些移动与哈伯法合成氨等工业过程联系起来。
Write the equilibrium constant expression Kc for a homogeneous reaction. Perform calculations to find Kc or equilibrium concentrations using an ICE (Initial–Change–Equilibrium) table.
书写均相反应的平衡常数表达式 Kc。运用 ICE（起始–变化–平衡）表进行 Kc 或平衡浓度的计算。
Explain that the magnitude of Kc indicates the extent of reaction at equilibrium. Recognise that only temperature changes the value of Kc for a given reaction.
说明 Kc 值的大小反映了反应在平衡时进行的程度。认识到对于给定反应，只有温度会改变 Kc 值。
7. Acids and Bases | 酸碱
Define acid and base according to Brønsted–Lowry theory: an acid is a proton donor, a base is a proton acceptor. Identify conjugate acid–base pairs in a reaction.
根据布朗斯特-劳里理论定义酸和碱：酸是质子给予体，碱是质子接受体。识别反应中的共轭酸碱对。
Explain the autoionisation of water: 2H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + OH⁻, and state the ionic product constant Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ at 298 K.
解释水的自耦电离：2H₂O ⇌ H₃O⁺ + OH⁻，并写出离子积常数 Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴（298 K）。
Calculate pH from [H⁺] using pH = –log₁₀[H⁺], and vice versa. Perform similar calculations for pOH and relate pH, pOH and Kw.
运用 pH = –log₁₀[H⁺] 由 [H⁺] 计算 pH，并进行逆运算。对 pOH 进行类似计算，并联系 pH、pOH 和 Kw。
Distinguish between strong and weak acids/bases in terms of degree of dissociation. Calculate the pH of strong acid solutions directly, and for weak acids use the acid dissociation constant Ka (e.g. for ethanoic acid).
从电离程度的角度区分强酸/碱和弱酸/碱。直接计算强酸溶液的 pH，对弱酸则使用酸解离常数 Ka 计算（如乙酸）。
Explain how buffer solutions resist changes in pH. Apply the Henderson–Hasselbalch equation or the equilibrium approach to calculate the pH of acidic and basic buffers.
解释缓冲溶液如何抵抗 pH 的变化。运用亨德森–哈塞尔巴尔赫方程或平衡法计算酸性缓冲液和碱性缓冲液的 pH。
Sketch and interpret pH titration curves for strong acid–strong base, strong acid–weak base and weak acid–strong base combinations. Select suitable indicators based on the pH jump at equivalence.
绘制并解读强酸–强碱、强酸–弱碱、弱酸–强碱的 pH 滴定曲线。根据等当点附近的 pH 突跃选择合适的指示剂。
8. Redox Processes | 氧化还原过程
Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer (OIL RIG: Oxidation Is Loss, Reduction Is Gain) and assign oxidation numbers to atoms in compounds and ions.
从电子转移角度定义氧化和还原（失电子为氧化，得电子为还原），并给化合物和离子中的原子指定氧化数。
Balance redox equations using the method of half-equations. Combine the balanced oxidation and reduction half-equations to obtain the overall ionic equation.
利用半反应法配平氧化还原方程式。将配平的氧化半反应和还原半反应合并，得到总离子方程式。
Describe the principles of a voltaic (galvanic) cell: two half-cells connected by a salt bridge, producing electrical energy from a spontaneous redox reaction. Calculate standard cell potentials using E° = E°(cathode) – E°(anode).
描述伏打（原）电池的原理：由盐桥连接两个半电池，通过自发的氧化还原反应产生电能。运用 E° = E°(阴极) – E°(阳极) 计算标准电池电动势。
Use standard electrode potentials to predict the feasibility of a redox reaction. A positive E°cell indicates a thermodynamically feasible reaction under standard conditions.
利用标准电极电势预测氧化还原反应的可行性。E°cell 为正值表示反应在标准条件下热力学可行。
Explain the process of electrolysis in terms of the discharge of ions at the electrodes. Predict the products of electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous solutions, considering the relative ease of discharge.
用电极上离子放电的过程解释电解。预测熔融盐和水溶液电解的产物，并考虑离子的放电难易程度。
Apply Faraday’s laws of electrolysis to calculate the mass of product formed or the time required given the current and the stoichiometry of the electrode reaction (Q = It, and 1 mol e⁻ = 96 500 C).
应用法拉第电解定律，根据电流和电极反应的化学计量比计算生成物的质量或所需时间（Q = It；1 mol 电子 = 96 500 C）。
9. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学
Identify homologous series by their functional groups: alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, halogenoalkanes, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, esters, amines and amides. Know the general formula for alkanes (CₙH₂ₙ₊₂) and alkenes (CₙH₂ₙ).
按官能团识别同系列：烷烃、烯烃、醇、卤代烷、醛、酮、羧酸、酯、胺和酰胺。掌握烷烃（CₙH₂ₙ₊₂）和烯烃（CₙH₂ₙ）的通式。
Apply IUPAC nomenclature rules to name branched and substituted organic compounds up to six carbon atoms. Identify chain isomers, positional isomers and functional group isomers.
运用 IUPAC 命名规则命名最多六个碳原子的支链和取代有机化合物。识别碳链异构、位置异构和官能团异构。
Understand the difference between homolytic and heterolytic fission. Describe the mechanism of free-radical substitution for alkanes with chlorine, using initiation, propagation and termination steps.
理解均裂与异裂的区别。描述烷烃与氯气在紫外光下的自由基取代反应机理，包括链引发、链增长和链终止步骤。
Outline the electrophilic addition mechanism for alkenes. Use Markovnikov’s rule to predict the major product when an unsymmetrical alkene reacts with HX or H₂O/H⁺.
概述烯烃的亲电加成反应机理。运用马尔科夫尼科夫规则预测不对称烯烃与 HX 或 H₂O/H⁺ 反应的主产物。
Explain the nucleophilic substitution mechanisms SN1 and SN2 for halogenoalkanes. Discuss how the nature of the halogenoalkane (primary, secondary, tertiary) and the solvent affect the reaction pathway.
解释卤代烷的亲核取代机理 SN1 和 SN2。讨论卤代烷的类型（伯、仲、叔）和溶剂性质如何影响反应路径。
Recall reagents and conditions for key organic conversions: oxidation of alcohols (Cr₂O₇²⁻/H⁺), reduction of carbonyls (NaBH₄ or LiAlH₄), esterification (carboxylic acid + alcohol, H⁺ catalyst), and formation of amides from acyl chlorides.
记忆关键有机转化的试剂和条件：醇的氧化（Cr₂O₇²⁻/H⁺），羰基的还原（NaBH₄ 或 LiAlH₄），酯化（羧酸 + 醇，H⁺ 催化），以及由酰氯生成酰胺的反应。
10. Measurement, Data Processing and Practical Techniques | 测量、数据处理与实验技术
Record measurements with appropriate precision, expressing the uncertainty of analogue instruments as ± half of the smallest scale division and digital instruments as ± the smallest division.
以适当的精度记录测量值，模拟仪器的测量不确定度表示为 ± 最小刻度的一半，数字仪器则表示为 ± 最小读数单位。
Distinguish between random and systematic errors. Suggest ways to reduce random errors (repeating measurements) and to identify and eliminate systematic errors (calibration, control experiments).
区分随机误差和系统误差。提出减少随机误差的方法（重复测量）以及识别和消除系统误差的方法（校准、对照实验）。
Calculate mean values and percentage uncertainty. Combine uncertainties when adding/subtracting (add absolute uncertainties) and multiplying/dividing (add percentage uncertainties).
计算平均值和百分不确定度。在加减运算中合并绝对不确定度，在乘除运算中合并百分不确定度。
Plot graphs with appropriate scales, labelled axes and units. Draw lines of best fit and use the gradient and intercept to determine physical quantities from linear relationships.
以适当的标度绘制图表，标注坐标轴和单位。画出最佳拟合线，并利用斜率和截距从线性关系中确定物理量。
Outline common laboratory techniques such as titration, reflux, distillation, filtration and recrystallisation. Know the purpose of each technique and the apparatus required.
概述常见实验技术，如滴定、回流、蒸馏、过滤和重结晶。了解每种技术的用途及其所需的仪器装置。
Interpret spectra used in organic analysis: infrared (IR) absorptions for functional groups (e.g. O–H, C=O), mass spectra for molecular ion peaks and fragmentation patterns, and ¹H NMR for chemical shifts, integration and spin–spin splitting.
解读有机分析中的谱图：红外（IR）吸收以识别官能团（如 O–H, C=O），质谱中的分子离子峰和碎片模式，以及 ¹H 核磁共振中的化学位移、积分和自旋–自旋裂分。
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