📚 IGCSE WJEC Economics: Mind Map Quick Revision | 思维导图速记
This article presents a streamlined mind map for IGCSE WJEC Economics, condensing the entire syllabus into bite-sized, interlinked concepts. Use it to rapidly reinforce your understanding of the most examinable definitions, diagrams, and evaluation points. The bilingual format helps you internalise terminology in both English and Chinese, making revision efficient and less stressful.
本文提供 IGCSE WJEC 经济学的精简思维导图，将整个考纲浓缩为易于吸收的核心概念。你可以用它快速巩固最常考的定义、图表和评估要点。中英双语的形式有助于你同时掌握英语和中文术语，让复习更高效、更轻松。
1. The Basic Economic Problem | 基本经济问题
Scarcity means that resources are finite while human wants are infinite. This forces every economy to answer three fundamental questions: what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce.
稀缺性指资源有限而人类欲望无限。这就迫使每个经济体回答三个基本问题：生产什么、如何生产以及为谁生产。
Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative forgone when a choice is made. Every decision, whether by consumers, firms, or governments, involves an opportunity cost.
机会成本是做出选择时所放弃的次优替代方案的价值。每一个决策，无论来自消费者、企业还是政府，都包含机会成本。
The production possibility curve (PPC) illustrates the maximum combinations of two goods an economy can produce with fixed resources and technology. Points inside the curve show inefficient use of resources; points on the curve represent full and efficient employment; outward shifts indicate economic growth.
生产可能性曲线（PPC）表示一个经济体在固定资源和技术下能生产的两种商品的最大组合。曲线内侧的点表示资源利用无效率；曲线上的点代表充分有效就业；曲线向外移动则表明经济增长。
2. Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium | 需求、供给与市场均衡
The law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as the price of a good rises, quantity demanded falls. The demand curve slopes downwards because of the income and substitution effects.
需求定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，商品价格上升，需求量下降。需求曲线向下倾斜，原因包括收入效应和替代效应。
Factors that shift the demand curve (non-price determinants) include changes in income, tastes, prices of substitutes and complements, population, and advertising.
导致需求曲线移动的因素（非价格决定因素）包括收入变化、偏好、替代品和互补品价格、人口数量以及广告。
The law of supply states that, ceteris paribus, as price rises, quantity supplied rises. The supply curve slopes upwards because higher prices increase the incentive to produce. Shifts in supply are caused by changes in production costs, technology, taxes, subsidies, and the number of sellers.
供给定律指出，其他条件不变，价格上升，供给量上升。供给曲线向上倾斜，因为较高的价格增强了生产激励。供给曲线的移动由生产成本、技术、税收、补贴以及卖家数量的变化引起。
Market equilibrium occurs where the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. If price is above equilibrium, there is excess supply (surplus); if below, excess demand (shortage). Prices tend to adjust towards the equilibrium level in a free market.
市场均衡发生在需求量等于供给量之时。如果价格高于均衡水平，会出现超额供给（盈余）；如果低于均衡水平，则出现超额需求（短缺）。在自由市场中，价格倾向于调整至均衡水平。
3. Price, Income and Cross Elasticities | 价格弹性、收入弹性与交叉弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. PED = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔP. When PED > 1, demand is elastic; when PED < 1, demand is inelastic. A unitary elastic demand has PED = 1.
需求的价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。PED = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔP。当 PED > 1 时，需求富有弹性；当 PED < 1 时，需求缺乏弹性；单位弹性需求时 PED = 1。
Determinants of PED include the availability of substitutes, the proportion of income spent on the good, whether the good is a necessity or luxury, and the time period considered.
影响需求价格弹性的因素有替代品的可得性、商品在收入中所占的比例、该商品是必需品还是奢侈品，以及所考虑的时间长短。
Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price. PES = %ΔQs ÷ %ΔP. Supply tends to be more elastic in the long run as firms can adjust all factors of production.
供给的价格弹性（PES）衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度。PES = %ΔQs ÷ %ΔP。在长期中，由于企业可以调整所有生产要素，供给往往更具弹性。
Income elasticity of demand (YED) = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔY. Normal goods have positive YED; luxury goods have YED > 1; inferior goods have negative YED. Cross elasticity of demand (XED) = %ΔQd of good A ÷ %ΔP of good B. Positive XED indicates substitutes; negative XED indicates complements.
需求的收入弹性（YED）= %ΔQd ÷ %ΔY。正常品的 YED 为正；奢侈品的 YED > 1；低档品的 YED 为负。需求的交叉弹性（XED）= A 商品需求量变化的百分比 ÷ B 商品价格变化的百分比。XED 为正表明是替代品；XED 为负表明是互补品。
4. Market Failure and Government Intervention | 市场失灵与政府干预
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently, leading to a net welfare loss. Common causes include externalities, public goods, information failure, and market power.
市场失灵是指自由市场未能有效配置资源，导致净福利损失。常见原因包括外部性、公共物品、信息不对称以及市场势力。
Negative externalities occur when the social cost of production or consumption exceeds the private cost. This leads to overproduction. Positive externalities arise when social benefits exceed private benefits, causing underproduction. Governments can use indirect taxes, subsidies, regulations, and tradable permits to correct externalities.
负外部性发生在生产或消费的社会成本大于私人成本之时，导致过度生产。正外部性出现在社会收益大于私人收益之时，导致生产不足。政府可以运用间接税、补贴、法规和可交易许可证来纠正外部性。
Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous. Because private firms cannot easily charge for them, they are underprovided by the market. Examples include street lighting and national defence. The government usually provides these goods financed through taxation.
公共物品具有非排他性和非竞争性。由于私营企业难以收费，市场会提供不足，例子有路灯和国防。通常由政府通过税收资助来提供这类物品。
Information failure means consumers or producers lack full knowledge to make optimal decisions. This can be tackled through compulsory labelling, education campaigns, and regulation.
信息不对称意味着消费者或生产者缺乏做出最优决策所需的充分信息。可通过强制标签、教育宣传和监管来解决。
5. Production, Costs and Revenue | 生产、成本与收益
The factors of production are land, labour, capital, and enterprise. Their rewards are rent, wages, interest, and profit respectively. Specialisation and division of labour can increase productivity but may lead to worker boredom.
生产要素包括土地、劳动、资本和企业家才能，其报酬分别为地租、工资、利息和利润。专业化和劳动分工能够提高生产率，但可能导致工人厌倦情绪。
In the short run, at least one factor is fixed. Total cost = fixed cost + variable cost. Average cost = total cost ÷ output. The law of diminishing returns states that as more variable factor is added to a fixed factor, marginal product eventually falls, causing marginal and average costs to rise.
在短期中，至少有一种要素是固定的。总成本 = 固定成本 + 可变成本。平均成本 = 总成本 ÷ 产量。边际收益递减规律表明，随着更多可变要素投入到固定要素上，边际产量最终会下降，导致边际成本和平均成本上升。
Total revenue = price × quantity sold. Average revenue = total revenue ÷ quantity = price. Profit maximisation occurs where marginal cost (MC) equals marginal revenue (MR). In perfect competition, a firm is a price taker; in a monopoly, the firm faces a downward-sloping demand curve.
总收益 = 价格 × 销售量。平均收益 = 总收益 ÷ 数量 = 价格。利润最大化发生在边际成本等于边际收益之处。在完全竞争中，企业是价格接受者；在垄断中，企业面临向下倾斜的需求曲线。
6. Macroeconomics: Objectives and Indicators | 宏观经济学：目标与指标
The main macroeconomic objectives are sustainable economic growth, low and stable inflation, low unemployment, and a satisfactory balance of payments on current account.
主要的宏观经济目标是可持续的经济增长、低而稳定的通货膨胀、低失业率以及令人满意的经常账户收支差额。
Economic growth is measured by the percentage change in real GDP (Gross Domestic Product) adjusted for inflation. Real GDP per capita gives a rough indication of living standards. Growth is driven by increases in the quantity or quality of factors of production and by technological progress.
经济增长按实际 GDP（国内生产总值）的百分比变化来衡量，已剔除通胀影响。人均实际 GDP 大致反映了生活水平。增长的推动力来自生产要素数量的增加、质量的提升以及技术进步。
Inflation is a sustained rise in the general price level. It is measured by indices such as the Consumer Price Index (CPI). Demand-pull inflation is caused by excessive aggregate demand; cost-push inflation results from rising costs of production. High inflation erodes purchasing power and creates uncertainty.
通货膨胀是指一般物价水平的持续上升，通过消费者价格指数（CPI）等指标衡量。需求拉动型通胀由过度的总需求引起；成本推动型通胀源于生产成本上升。高通胀侵蚀购买力并带来不确定性。
Unemployment measures those willing and able to work but without jobs. Types include cyclical, structural, frictional, and seasonal. The claimant count and the Labour Force Survey are common measures. Unemployment represents wasted resources and can reduce social cohesion.
失业衡量那些有意愿且有能力工作但找不到工作的人。类型包括周期性、结构性、摩擦性和季节性失业。申领失业金人数和劳动力调查是常用衡量标准。失业意味着资源浪费，并可能削弱社会凝聚力。
7. Fiscal and Monetary Policy | 财政政策与货币政策
Fiscal policy involves changes in government spending and taxation to influence aggregate demand. Expansionary fiscal policy (increased spending or tax cuts) can boost growth and employment but may increase budget deficit and inflation. Contractionary fiscal policy (reduced spending or tax increases) is used to cool down an overheating economy.
财政政策涉及改变政府支出和税收以影响总需求。扩张性财政政策（增加支出或减税）可促进增长和就业，但可能增加预算赤字和通胀压力。紧缩性财政政策（削减支出或增税）则用于为过热的经济降温。
Monetary policy uses interest rates, money supply, and credit controls to manage the economy. Lower interest rates encourage borrowing and investment, stimulating AD. Higher rates dampen borrowing and help control inflation. In the UK, the Bank of England’s Monetary Policy Committee sets the base rate.
货币政策运用利率、货币供应量和信贷控制来管理经济。降低利率鼓励借贷和投资，刺激总需求。提高利率则抑制借贷，有助于控制通胀。在英国，英格兰银行货币政策委员会负责设定基准利率。
Supply-side policies aim to increase the productive capacity of the economy by improving the efficiency of markets. Examples include investing in education and training, lowering taxes on business profits, privatisation, deregulation, and infrastructure spending. These can raise long-run growth without fuelling inflation.
供给侧政策旨在通过提高市场效率来增强经济的生产能力。例如投资于教育和培训、降低企业利得税、私有化、放松管制和基建支出。这些政策能够在长期内提升增长且不引发通胀。
8. International Trade and Globalisation | 国际贸易与全球化
Free trade allows countries to specialise according to comparative advantage, which occurs when a country can produce a good at a lower opportunity cost than another. Trade boosts consumer choice and efficiency but may harm domestic industries struggling to compete.
自由贸易使各国能够根据比较优势进行专业化，即一国生产某种商品的机会成本低于另一国。贸易能够增加消费者选择和效率，但也可能伤害难以竞争的国内产业。
Protectionism uses tariffs, quotas, subsidies to domestic producers, and non-tariff barriers to shield domestic firms from foreign competition. While protecting jobs in the short run, it can lead to higher prices, less innovation, and retaliation from trading partners.
保护主义采用关税、配额、对国内生产者的补贴以及非关税壁垒来保护国内企业免受外国竞争。短期内虽能保护就业，但可能导致价格上涨、创新减少以及贸易伙伴的报复。
An exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. Appreciation (rise in value) makes exports more expensive and imports cheaper, potentially worsening the trade balance. Depreciation makes exports cheaper and imports dearer, possibly improving it, provided demand is elastic (Marshall-Lerner condition).
汇率是一种货币用另一种货币表示的价格。升值（价值上升）使出口更贵、进口更便宜，可能恶化贸易收支。贬值使出口更便宜、进口更昂贵，若需求具有弹性（马歇尔-勒纳条件），则可能改善贸易收支。
Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of economies through trade, capital flows, technology, and migration. It brings opportunities for growth and cultural exchange but also poses risks such as greater inequality and environmental damage.
全球化指通过贸易、资本流动、技术和移民促使各经济体的日益融合。它带来增长和文化交流的机遇，但也带来不平等加剧和环境损害等风险。
9. Development Economics: Key Concepts | 发展经济学：核心概念
Economic development is a broader concept than economic growth, encompassing improvements in health, education, freedom, and sustainability. The Human Development Index (HDI) combines GDP per capita, life expectancy, and education indicators to measure development.
经济发展是一个比经济增长更广泛的概念，包含健康、教育、自由和可持续性的改善。人类发展指数（HDI）综合了人均 GDP、预期寿命和教育指标来衡量发展水平。
Barriers to development include poor infrastructure, lack of human capital, high levels of debt, political instability, and reliance on primary product exports. These can trap countries in cycles of poverty and limited growth.
发展障碍包括基础设施薄弱、人力资本匮乏、债务负担沉重、政局不稳以及依赖初级产品出口。这些因素可能使国家陷入贫困和增长受限的恶性循环。
Policies to promote development include aid (both financial and technical), debt relief, fair trade initiatives, and inward investment through multinational corporations. Aid can fill savings gaps but may create dependency if not well governed.
促进发展的政策包括援助（资金和技术两方面）、债务减免、公平贸易倡议以及通过跨国公司吸引外来投资。援助可以填补储蓄缺口，但若治理不善可能造成依赖。
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