📚 GCSE AQA Physics: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE AQA 物理：期末复习提纲
This revision checklist covers all the major topics in the AQA GCSE Physics specification. Use it to guide your final preparation, checking off each concept and formula as you become confident.
这份复习提纲涵盖了 AQA GCSE 物理规范中的所有主要主题。用它来指导你的期末复习，在掌握每个概念和公式后逐一打勾确认。
1. Energy | 能量
Energy is stored in various forms and can be transferred mechanically, electrically, by heating, or by radiation. The principle of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred between stores.
能量以多种形式储存，并可通过机械、电、加热或辐射的方式传递。能量守恒定律指出能量不能被创造或消灭，只能在储存库之间转移。
Kinetic energy depends on mass and speed. Gravitational potential energy depends on mass, height, and gravitational field strength. Elastic potential energy is stored in stretched or compressed objects.
动能取决于质量和速度。重力势能取决于质量、高度和重力场强度。弹性势能储存在被拉伸或压缩的物体中。
Work done is equal to energy transferred. Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy. Efficiency measures how much useful energy is output compared to the total input.
做功等于能量转移的量。功率是做功或能量转移的速率。效率衡量了有用输出能量占总输入能量的比例。
Specific heat capacity describes how much energy is needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1°C. Renewable and non‑renewable energy resources have different advantages and disadvantages.
比热容描述了将 1 kg 物质温度升高 1°C 所需的能量。可再生能源和不可再生能源各有优缺点。
KE = ½ m v²
GPE = m g h
EPE = ½ k e²
ΔE = m c Δθ
P = E / t = W / t
2. Electricity | 电学
Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. In a closed circuit, charge is conserved. Potential difference (voltage) measures the energy transferred per unit of charge.
电流是电荷流动的速率。在闭合电路中，电荷是守恒的。电势差（电压）衡量了每单位电荷转移的能量。
Ohm’s law states that, for a resistor at constant temperature, the current is directly proportional to the potential difference. Resistance opposes the flow of charge.
欧姆定律指出，在恒温下，电阻器中的电流与电势差成正比。电阻会阻碍电荷的流动。
In series circuits, current is the same everywhere and the total resistance is the sum of individual resistances. In parallel circuits, the total resistance is less than the smallest individual resistance.
在串联电路中，各处电流相等，总电阻等于各电阻之和。在并联电路中，总电阻小于任意单个电阻。
Power can be calculated using P = I V, P = I² R, or P = V² / R. Energy transferred is given by E = P t and E = Q V. Mains electricity is alternating current at 230 V and 50 Hz.
功率可以用 P = I V、P = I² R 或 P = V² / R 计算。转移的能量由 E = P t 和 E = Q V 给出。市电是 230 V、50 Hz 的交流电。
Fuses, circuit breakers, and earthing are safety features that prevent overheating and electric shock. The National Grid uses transformers to step up voltage for efficient transmission and step it down for safe home use.
保险丝、断路器和接地是防止过热和触电的安全装置。国家电网使用变压器升压以实现高效传输，并在家庭使用时降压以确保安全。
V = I R
Q = I t
P = I V = I² R = V² / R
E = P t = Q V
3. Particle Model of Matter | 粒子物质模型
Density is mass per unit volume; it can be measured by finding the mass and volume of a regular solid, an irregular solid (using displacement), or a liquid.
密度是单位体积的质量；可以通过测量规则固体、不规则固体（使用排水法）或液体的质量和体积来测定。
Changes of state are physical changes: melting, freezing, boiling, condensing, and sublimation. Mass is conserved during a change of state.
物态变化是物理变化：熔化、凝固、沸腾、凝结和升华。在物态变化过程中，质量是守恒的。
Internal energy is the total kinetic and potential energy of particles. Heating increases the internal energy, and a change of state requires latent heat without a temperature change.
内能是粒子的总动能和势能。加热会增加内能，而物态变化需要潜热且温度不发生变化。
Specific latent heat of fusion and vaporisation describe the energy required to change the state of 1 kg of a substance at its melting or boiling point.
熔化比潜热和汽化比潜热描述了使 1 kg 物质在熔点或沸点改变状态所需的能量。
For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, pressure is directly proportional to absolute temperature (kelvin). This can be written as P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂.
对于固定质量的气体，在体积不变的情况下，压强与绝对温度（开尔文）成正比。可写作 P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂。
ρ = m / V
ΔE = m L
P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂
4. Atomic Structure | 原子结构
An atom consists of a small, dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in energy levels. Atomic number equals the number of protons; mass number equals the sum of protons and neutrons.
原子由一个包含质子和中子的微小、致密的原子核以及处于能级中的电子组成。原子序数等于质子数；质量数等于质子数与中子数之和。
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are unstable and emit ionising radiation: alpha (α), beta (β), or gamma (γ).
同位素是同一元素中中子数不同的原子。有些同位素不稳定，会发射电离辐射：α、β 或 γ 射线。
Radioactive decay is random, and the half‑life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei to decay. Background radiation comes from natural and artificial sources.
放射性衰变是随机的，半衰期是指一半的放射性原子核发生衰变所需的时间。背景辐射来源于天然和人造源。
Irradiation is exposure to radiation, whereas contamination is the presence of radioactive material on or inside an object. Nuclear fission splits large nuclei and releases energy; nuclear fusion joins small nuclei and is the process powering stars.
辐照是指受到辐射的照射，而污染则是指物体表面或内部存在放射性物质。核裂变是使大原子核分裂并释放能量；核聚变是使小原子核结合，是为恒星提供能量的过程。
α: helium nucleus β: fast electron γ: electromagnetic wave
5. Forces | 力
Scalar quantities have magnitude only, while vectors have both magnitude and direction. Distance and speed are scalars; displacement and velocity are vectors.
标量只有大小，矢量既有大小又有方向。路程和速率是标量；位移和速度是矢量。
Newton’s first law states that an object remains at rest or moves with constant velocity unless acted on by a resultant force. Newton’s second law: F = m a.
牛顿第一定律指出，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动状态，除非受到合力作用。牛顿第二定律：F = m a。
Weight is the force of gravity on a mass: W = m g. The stopping distance of a vehicle is the sum of thinking distance and braking distance.
重量是作用在物体上的重力：W = m g。车辆的停车距离等于思考距离与制动距离之和。
Hooke’s law describes the extension of a spring: F = k e, up to the limit of proportionality. A moment is the turning effect of a force: M = F d (perpendicular distance).
胡克定律描述了弹簧的伸长量：F = k e，不超过比例极限。力矩是力的转动效应：M = F d（垂直距离）。
Momentum is a vector quantity: p = m v. In a closed system, total momentum before a collision equals total momentum after the collision.
动量是矢量：p = m v。在封闭系统中，碰撞前的总动量等于碰撞后的总动量。
v² − u² = 2 a s
F = m a
W = m g
F = k e
M = F d
p = m v
6. Waves | 波
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves (e.g. light, water waves) oscillate perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer; longitudinal waves (e.g. sound) oscillate parallel.
波传递能量而不传递物质。横波（如光、水波）振动方向与能量传递方向垂直；纵波（如声波）振动方向与能量传递方向平行。
Wave speed, frequency, and wavelength are related by v = f λ. The period of a wave is the time for one complete oscillation, T = 1/f.
波速、频率和波长之间的关系为 v = f λ。波的周期是一次完整振动所需的时间，T = 1/f。
The electromagnetic spectrum includes, in order of decreasing wavelength and increasing frequency: radio, microwave, infrared, visible, ultraviolet, X‑ray, and gamma radiation. All travel at the same speed in a vacuum.
电磁波谱按波长递减、频率递增的顺序包括：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X 射线和伽马射线。它们在真空中都以相同速度传播。
Reflection follows the law of reflection. Refraction occurs when waves change speed at a boundary, causing them to change direction unless they strike the normal at 0°.
反射遵循反射定律。当波在边界处速度改变时，会发生折射，导致方向改变，除非它们以 0° 入射角射向法线。
Sound waves are mechanical longitudinal waves that can be reflected (echoes) and refracted. Ultrasound has a frequency above 20 kHz and is used for sonar and medical imaging.
声波是机械纵波，可以被反射（回声）和折射。超声波的频率高于 20 kHz，用于声纳和医学成像。
A converging (convex) lens can produce real or virtual images depending on the object distance. Dispersion of white light through a prism reveals the colours of the visible spectrum.
凸透镜可以根据物距形成实像或虚像。白光通过棱镜的色散会显示出可见光的光谱颜色。
v = f λ
T = 1 / f
7. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁与电磁
Magnets have north and south poles; like poles repel and unlike poles attract. A magnetic field line shows the direction of the force on a north pole.
磁铁有 N 极和 S 极；同名磁极相互排斥，异名磁极相互吸引。磁感线显示了作用在 N 极上的力的方向。
An electromagnet is a coil of wire (solenoid) with an iron core; its strength can be increased by increasing the current, the number of turns, or using a soft iron core.
电磁铁是带有铁芯的线圈（螺线管）；通过增大电流、增加线圈匝数或使用软铁芯可以增强其磁性。
The motor effect occurs when a current‑carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, producing a force. Fleming’s left‑hand rule predicts the direction of the force, magnetic field, and current.
当通电导体置于磁场中时，会发生电动机效应，产生力。弗莱明左手定则可预判力、磁场和电流的方向。
Electromagnetic induction occurs when a conductor cuts magnetic field lines, inducing a potential difference. Generators and dynamos produce electricity using this principle.
当导体切割磁感线时会发生电磁感应，产生感应电动势。发电机和自行车摩电灯就是利用这一原理发电的。
Transformers change the potential difference of an alternating current. For an ideal transformer, Vₚ/Vₛ = nₚ/nₛ and Pₚ = Pₛ, so VₚIₚ = VₛIₛ.
变压器可以改变交流电的电压。对于理想变压器，Vₚ/Vₛ = nₚ/nₛ 且 Pₚ = Pₛ，因此 VₚIₚ = VₛIₛ。
Vₚ / Vₛ = nₚ / nₛ
Vₚ Iₚ = Vₛ Iₛ (100% efficiency)
8. Space Physics | 空间物理
The solar system consists of the Sun, planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids, and comets. Gravity provides the centripetal force that keeps planets and satellites in orbit.
太阳系由太阳、行星、矮行星、卫星、小行星和彗星组成。引力提供了使行星和卫星保持在轨道上运行的向心力。
Stars form from clouds of gas and dust (nebulae) pulled together by gravity. The life cycle of a star depends on its mass; stars like the Sun end as white dwarfs, while more massive stars can become neutron stars or black holes after a supernova.
恒星是由气体和尘埃云（星云）在引力作用下聚集而成的。恒星的生命周期取决于其质量；类似太阳的恒星最终会成为白矮星，而质量更大的恒星在超新星爆发后可能变成中子星或黑洞。
For circular orbits, the speed of a planet or satellite is constant, but its velocity changes because the direction changes. An object in a stable orbit moves faster when it is closer to the body it orbits.
对于圆形轨道，行星或卫星的速率不变，但由于方向不断变化，速度在变化。轨道稳定的天体在靠近中心天体时运动更快。
Red‑shift describes the shift of light from distant galaxies towards longer (redder) wavelengths, indicating they are moving away from us. Galaxies further away are moving away faster, providing evidence for the expanding Universe.
红移描述了来自遥远星系的光波波长向长波（红色）端偏移的现象，表明它们正远离我们而去。距离越远的星系退行速度越快，这为宇宙膨胀提供了证据。
The Big Bang theory states that the Universe began from a very hot, dense point about 13.8 billion years ago. Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is a key piece of evidence supporting this theory.
大爆炸理论认为，宇宙始于约 138 亿年前的一个极热、致密的点。宇宙微波背景辐射（CMBR）是支持这一理论的关键证据。
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