📚 GCSE CIE Economics: End-of-Year Revision Checklist | GCSE CIE 经济：期末复习提纲
Welcome to your end-of-year revision checklist for CIE IGCSE Economics (0455). This guide summarises key concepts across the syllabus to help you focus your final review. Each section is paired with concise explanations in both English and Chinese to support bilingual learners and consolidate your understanding before the exam.
欢迎使用 CIE IGCSE 经济（0455）期末复习提纲。本指南总结了整个教学大纲的核心概念，帮助你聚焦最后的复习。每个小节都以中英双语提供简明解释，便于双语学习者巩固理解，为考试做好充分准备。
1. The Basic Economic Problem and Opportunity Cost | 基本经济问题与机会成本
Scarcity arises because resources are finite but human wants are infinite, forcing individuals, firms and governments to make choices.
稀缺性的产生是因为资源是有限的，而人类的欲望是无限的。这迫使个人、企业和政府必须做出选择。
The opportunity cost of any choice is the value of the next best alternative forgone. It is a central concept in economics, reminding us that every decision involves a trade-off.
任何选择的机会成本是所放弃的下一个最佳替代品的价值。这是经济学的核心概念，提醒我们每个决策都涉及权衡。
A production possibility curve (PPC) shows the maximum possible output combinations of two goods that can be produced with available resources and technology. Points on the curve are efficient, inside points represent underutilisation, and points outside are currently unattainable.
生产可能性曲线（PPC）显示了利用现有资源和技术可以生产的两种商品的最大可能产出组合。曲线上的点代表有效生产，内部的点表示未充分利用，外部的点目前无法达到。
Economic growth shifts the PPC outward, caused by increases in the quantity or quality of factors of production or technological progress.
经济增长使 PPC 向外移动，其原因包括生产要素数量或质量的提高，或者技术进步。
2. Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium | 需求、供给与市场均衡
The law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as price falls quantity demanded rises, and vice versa. A movement along the demand curve is caused by a price change, while shifts are caused by changes in income, tastes, prices of related goods, and more.
需求定理指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格下降则需求量上升，反之亦然。价格变动引起沿需求曲线的移动，而收入、偏好、相关商品价格等因素的变化会引起需求曲线移动。
The law of supply states that, ceteris paribus, as price rises quantity supplied rises. Supply curve shifts result from changes in costs of production, technology, taxes, subsidies, and the number of sellers.
供给定理指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格上升则供给量上升。生产成本、技术、税收、补贴以及卖家数量等因素的变化会导致供给曲线移动。
Market equilibrium occurs where demand equals supply, determining the equilibrium price and quantity. Excess demand pushes prices up, while excess supply pushes prices down, returning the market to equilibrium.
市场均衡出现在需求等于供给之处，决定了均衡价格和数量。超额需求会推高价格，超额供给则会压低价格，从而使市场回归均衡。
3. Elasticity (PED, PES, YED) | 弹性：需求价格弹性、供给弹性与收入弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price.
价格需求弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。
PED = % change in quantity demanded / % change in price
If PED > 1, demand is elastic and a price cut raises total revenue. If PED < 1, demand is inelastic and a price rise raises total revenue. If PED = 1, total revenue remains unchanged.
如果 PED > 1，需求富有弹性，降价会增加总收入；如果 PED < 1，需求缺乏弹性，提价会增加总收入；如果 PED = 1，单位弹性，总收入不变。
Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures how responsive quantity supplied is to price changes. PES depends on factors such as time period, spare capacity and availability of raw materials.
价格供给弹性（PES）衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度。PES 取决于时间期限、闲置产能以及原材料的可获得性等因素。
Income elasticity of demand (YED) measures the response of demand to changes in income. Normal goods have positive YED, while inferior goods have negative YED.
收入弹性（YED）衡量需求对收入变化的反应。正常品的 YED 为正，劣等品的 YED 为负。
4. Market Failure and Government Intervention | 市场失灵与政府干预
Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Key causes include public goods, externalities, information gaps, and monopoly power.
当自由市场无法有效配置资源时，便会出现市场失灵。主要原因包括公共品、外部性、信息不对称以及垄断势力。
Public goods are non-excludable and non-rival, leading to the free-rider problem and under-provision by the market. Examples include street lighting and national defence.
公共品具有非排他性和非竞争性，会导致搭便车问题以及市场供应不足。例子包括路灯和国防。
Negative externalities impose costs on third parties (e.g. pollution), resulting in over-production. Positive externalities confer benefits on third parties (e.g. education), resulting in under-consumption.
负外部性给第三方带来成本（如污染），导致过度生产；正外部性给第三方带来收益（如教育），导致消费不足。
Governments can intervene using indirect taxes to internalise negative externalities, subsidies to encourage positive externalities, regulations, price controls, and direct provision of public goods.
政府可通过间接税将负外部性内部化、用补贴鼓励正外部性、实施法规、价格控制以及直接提供公共品等方式进行干预。
5. Production, Costs, Revenue and Profit | 生产、成本、收入与利润
In the short run, at least one factor of production is fixed. In the long run, all factors are variable. Fixed costs do not vary with output, while variable costs do.
在短期内，至少有一种生产要素是固定的；在长期内，所有要素都可变。固定成本不随产量变化，可变成本则随产量变化。
Total cost (TC) = fixed cost + variable cost. Average cost (AC) = TC / output. Marginal cost (MC) is the cost of producing one more unit. The point where MC = AC is the minimum efficient scale.
总成本（TC）= 固定成本 + 可变成本。平均成本（AC）= 总成本 / 产量。边际成本（MC）是额外生产一单位产品所带来的成本。MC = AC 时的产量为最小有效规模。
Total revenue (TR) = price × quantity. Profit is the difference between total revenue and total cost. A firm is profit-maximising where marginal cost equals marginal revenue (MC = MR).
总收入（TR）= 价格 × 数量。利润是总收入与总成本之差。当边际成本等于边际收入（MC = MR）时，企业实现利润最大化。
Productivity measures output per unit of input. Economies of scale reduce average costs as output increases, while diseconomies of scale raise them.
生产率衡量每单位投入的产出。随着产出增加，规模经济会降低平均成本，而规模不经济则会提高平均成本。
6. Market Structures and Business Objectives | 市场结构与商业目标
Perfect competition features many buyers and sellers, homogeneous products, free entry and exit, and perfect information. Firms are price takers and earn normal profit in the long run.
完全竞争的特征是大量买卖双方、同质产品、自由进出市场以及完全信息。企业是价格接受者，在长期中只获得正常利润。
Monopoly is a single seller with significant barriers to entry. A monopolist is a price maker and can earn supernormal profit in the long run. Potential drawbacks include higher prices and lower output.
垄断是唯一卖家，存在显著的进入壁垒。垄断者是价格制定者，能在长期中获得超额利润。潜在弊端包括较高的价格和较低的产出。
Monopolistic competition involves many firms selling slightly differentiated products, with low barriers to entry. Oligopoly is dominated by a few large firms, with interdependent decision-making and the possibility of collusion.
垄断竞争涉及众多企业销售略有差异的产品，进入壁垒较低。寡头垄断由少数几家大企业主导，决策相互依赖，并可能存在合谋行为。
Business objectives extend beyond profit maximisation. Firms may pursue sales revenue maximisation, growth, market share, satisficing, or social and environmental goals.
商业目标不仅限于利润最大化。企业可能追求销售收入最大化、增长、市场份额、满意化，或社会和环境目标。
7. Labour Market and Trade Unions | 劳动力市场与工会
Wages are determined by the interaction of labour demand and supply. Demand for labour is derived from the demand for goods and services. Supply depends on factors such as population, training, and the wage rate in alternative occupations.
工资由劳动力需求与供给的相互作用决定。劳动力需求源自对商品和服务的需求。供给取决于人口、培训以及替代职业的工资率等因素。
Trade unions are organisations that represent workers’ interests to negotiate pay and working conditions. Through collective bargaining, unions can influence wage levels above equilibrium.
工会是代表工人利益的组织，用以协商薪酬和工作条件。通过集体谈判，工会有可能将工资水平推高至均衡水平之上。
A national minimum wage sets a legal floor for wages. When set above the equilibrium, it can cause excess supply of labour (unemployment) if labour demand is elastic and other conditions allow.
全国最低工资规定了一个法定工资下限。当设定高于均衡水平时，如果劳动力需求富有弹性且其他条件允许，可能会导致劳动力过剩（失业）。
Factors influencing trade union power include legislation, the proportion of unionised workers, the elasticity of demand for the product, and the state of the economy.
影响工会力量的因素包括立法、工会化工人的比例、产品需求的弹性以及经济状况。
8. Macroeconomic Objectives and Government Policies | 宏观经济目标与政府政策
The main macroeconomic objectives are sustainable economic growth, low unemployment, low and stable inflation, and a satisfactory balance of payments on current account.
主要的宏观经济目标是可持续的经济增长、低失业率、低且稳定的通货膨胀，以及令人满意的经常账户收支状况。
Fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation. Expansionary fiscal policy (higher spending or lower taxes) aims to boost aggregate demand, while contractionary fiscal policy helps cool an overheating economy.
财政政策涉及政府支出和税收。扩张性财政政策（增加支出或减税）旨在刺激总需求，而紧缩性财政政策有助于为过热的经济降温。
Monetary policy uses interest rates and the money supply to influence aggregate demand. Lower interest rates encourage borrowing and investment, while higher rates reduce inflationary pressure.
货币政策通过利率和货币供给来影响总需求。较低的利率鼓励借贷和投资，较高的利率则减轻通胀压力。
Supply-side policies aim to increase the productive capacity of the economy by improving the quantity and quality of factors of production, e.g. education, infrastructure, and deregulation.
供给侧政策旨在通过提高生产要素的数量和质量来增强经济的生产能力，例如教育、基础设施建设和放松管制。
9. Economic Development and Living Standards | 经济发展与生活水平
Economic growth is measured by the growth in real GDP. However, GDP per capita is a better indicator of average living standards, though it ignores income distribution and non-market activities.
经济增长以实际 GDP 的增长来衡量。然而，人均 GDP 是衡量平均生活水平的更好指标，但它忽略了收入分配和非市场活动。
The Human Development Index (HDI) combines life expectancy, education, and GNI per capita to give a broader measure of development. It highlights that income alone does not guarantee well-being.
人类发展指数（HDI）结合了预期寿命、教育和人均国民总收入，提供了更广泛的发展衡量标准。它突显了仅有收入并不能保障福祉。
Poverty can be absolute (severe deprivation of basic human needs) or relative (falling below the average income standard in a society). Rapid population growth can strain resources and slow development.
贫困可以是绝对的（严重缺乏基本人类需求）或相对的（低于社会平均收入标准）。人口快速增长可能给资源带来压力，阻碍发展。
Differences in economic development arise from factors such as investment levels, healthcare, education, infrastructure, political stability, and terms of trade.
经济发展水平的差异源于投资水平、医疗保健、教育、基础设施、政治稳定性和贸易条件等因素。
10. International Trade and Globalisation | 国际贸易与全球化
The principle of comparative advantage states that countries should specialise in producing goods where they have a lower opportunity cost, then trade to mutual benefit.
比较优势原则表明，各国应专业化生产机会成本较低的商品，然后通过贸易获利。
Free trade increases consumer choice, lowers prices, and encourages efficiency, but may harm domestic industries and lead to structural unemployment. Protectionism uses tariffs, quotas, and subsidies to shield local producers.
自由贸易增加消费者选择、降低价格并促进效率，但可能损害国内产业并导致结构性失业。保护主义使用关税、配额和补贴来庇护本地生产者。
Exchange rates can float freely (determined by market forces) or be fixed by government intervention. A depreciation makes exports cheaper and imports dearer, improving the trade balance if demand conditions are favourable.
汇率可以自由浮动（由市场力量决定）或由政府干预固定。贬值使出口更便宜、进口更昂贵，若需求条件有利，可改善贸易差额。
The current account of the balance of payments records trade in goods, services, income and transfers. A persistent deficit may signal competitiveness problems, while a surplus indicates the opposite.
国际收支经常账户记录商品贸易、服务贸易、收入和转移。持续的逆差可能表明竞争力问题，而顺差则反之。
Globalisation refers to the increasing integration of economies through trade, investment and technology. It brings benefits such as wider markets and knowledge transfer, but also risks like income inequality and environmental harm.
全球化是指通过贸易、投资和技术而日益密切的经济一体化。它带来了更广阔的市场和知识转移等好处，但也带来了收入不平等和环境损害等风险。
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