📚 IB AQA Business: Formula Summary Handbook | IB AQA 商务：公式汇总手册
Mastering essential business formulas is non-negotiable for IB and AQA students aiming for top grades in exams, internal assessments, and case study analysis. This handbook compiles every critical formula across accounting ratios, investment appraisal, operational efficiency, and more, precisely mapped to the IB Business Management and AQA A-Level Business specifications. Each formula is presented with clear explanations and practical application notes, helping you move from memorisation to confident, accurate calculation under timed conditions.
掌握核心商务公式是IB和AQA学生追求高分考试、内部评估和案例分析不可或缺的一环。本手册汇集了财务比率、投资评估、运营效率等所有关键公式，精准对标IB商务管理与AQA A-Level商务课程大纲。每个公式都配有清晰的解释和实际应用说明，帮助你从死记硬背过渡到在规定时间内自信、准确地完成计算。
1. Contribution and Profit Margins | 贡献与利润率
Contribution per unit reveals how much each product sold contributes towards covering fixed costs and generating profit. It is calculated by subtracting variable cost per unit from the selling price.
Contribution per unit = Selling price – Variable cost per unit
单位贡献显示每售出一件产品能为覆盖固定成本和创造利润贡献多少金额。计算公式是从销售价格中减去单位变动成本。
单位贡献 = 销售价格 – 单位变动成本
Total contribution, useful for cost-volume-profit analysis, is simply the unit contribution multiplied by the number of units sold.
Total contribution = Contribution per unit × Quantity sold
总贡献用于本量利分析，直接用单位贡献乘以销售数量即可得出。
总贡献 = 单位贡献 × 销售数量
Profit margins gauge a firm’s ability to control costs and generate profit at different stages of the income statement. The gross profit margin measures profitability after direct costs, while operating profit margin captures efficiency after all operating expenses, and net profit margin shows the final bottom line after all costs and tax.
Gross Profit Margin = (Gross Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
Operating Profit Margin = (Operating Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
Net Profit Margin = (Net Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
利润率衡量企业在利润表不同阶段控制成本和创造利润的能力。毛利率衡量扣除直接成本后的盈利能力，营业利润率反映扣除所有营业费用后的效率，净利润率则展示扣除全部成本和税收后的最终结果。
毛利率 = (毛利 ÷ 收入) × 100
营业利润率 = (营业利润 ÷ 收入) × 100
净利润率 = (净利润 ÷ 收入) × 100
A crucial measure of capital efficiency, Return on Capital Employed (ROCE), evaluates how well a business generates profit from its long-term funding.
ROCE = (Operating Profit ÷ Capital Employed) × 100
已用资本回报率（ROCE）是评估企业利用长期资金创造利润效率的关键指标。
ROCE = (营业利润 ÷ 已用资本) × 100
2. Break-even Analysis | 盈亏平衡分析
Break-even analysis identifies the level of output at which total revenue equals total costs, meaning the business makes neither profit nor loss. The break-even point in units is found by dividing total fixed costs by the contribution per unit.
Break-even point (units) = Fixed costs ÷ (Selling price per unit – Variable cost per unit)
盈亏平衡分析确定总收入等于总成本时的产出水平，此时企业既不盈利也不亏损。盈亏平衡点产量用总固定成本除以单位贡献得出。
盈亏平衡点（单位）= 固定成本 ÷ (单位售价 – 单位变动成本)
To express the break-even point in revenue terms, simply multiply the break-even units by the selling price per unit.
Break-even point (revenue) = Break-even point (units) × Selling price per unit
若以收入表示盈亏平衡点，只需将盈亏平衡产量乘以单位售价。
盈亏平衡点（收入）= 盈亏平衡点（单位）× 单位售价
Margin of safety calculates how much output or sales can fall before the business reaches the break-even point, providing a buffer against uncertainty.
Margin of safety (units) = Actual output – Break-even output
安全边际计算在达到盈亏平衡点前，产出或销售额可以下降多少，为不确定性提供缓冲。
安全边际（单位）= 实际产出 – 盈亏平衡产出
3. Investment Appraisal | 投资评估
The Average Rate of Return (ARR) compares average annual profit from an investment to the initial sum invested, expressed as a percentage. It helps managers screen projects for profitability without accounting for the time value of money.
ARR = (Average annual profit ÷ Initial investment) × 100
平均回报率（ARR）将投资的平均年利润与初始投资额进行比较，用百分比表示。它帮助管理者在不考虑货币时间价值的情况下筛选项目的盈利能力。
ARR = (平均年利润 ÷ 初始投资额) × 100
The payback period calculates how long it takes for the net cash flows from an investment to repay the initial outlay. When net cash flows are equal each year, a simple division suffices; for uneven flows, cumulative cash flow is used.
Payback period (equal flows) = Initial investment ÷ Annual net cash flow
回收期计算投资产生的净现金流量需要多长时间才能偿还初始支出。若每年净现金流量相等，简单除法即可；若不等，则使用累计现金流量。
回收期（等额）= 初始投资额 ÷ 年净现金流量
Net Present Value (NPV) discounts all future cash flows back to their present value and deducts the initial investment. A positive NPV indicates a financially worthwhile project.
NPV = Σ [Net cash flow in year t ÷ (1 + discount rate)t] – Initial investment
净现值（NPV）将所有未来现金流量折现为现值，并扣除初始投资。正的NPV表明项目在财务上可行。
NPV = Σ [第t年净现金流量 ÷ (1 + 折现率)t] – 初始投资额
4. Financial Efficiency Ratios | 财务效率比率
Efficiency ratios analyse how effectively a business uses its assets and manages its liabilities. Inventory (stock) turnover measures how many times inventory is sold and replaced over a period.
Inventory turnover = Cost of goods sold ÷ Average inventory held
效率比率用于分析企业利用资产和管理负债的有效性。存货周转率衡量在一段时间内存货的销售和重置次数。
存货周转率 = 销售成本 ÷ 平均存货额
Trade receivables days (debtor days) show the average time customers take to settle their bills, while trade payables days (creditor days) indicate how long a business takes to pay its suppliers.
Trade receivables days = (Trade receivables ÷ Revenue) × 365
Trade payables days = (Trade payables ÷ Cost of sales) × 365
应收账款周转天数显示客户平均付款所需时间，应付账款周转天数则表明企业支付供应商所需的时间。
应收账款周转天数 = (应收账款 ÷ 收入) × 365
应付账款周转天数 = (应付账款 ÷ 销售成本) × 365
5. Liquidity Ratios | 流动性比率
Liquidity ratios assess a firm’s ability to meet short-term obligations as they fall due. The current ratio compares all current assets to current liabilities.
Current ratio = Current assets ÷ Current liabilities
流动性比率评估企业偿还到期短期债务的能力。流动比率比较全部流动资产与流动负债。
流动比率 = 流动资产 ÷ 流动负债
The acid test (quick) ratio is a stricter measure because it excludes inventory, which may not be quickly converted into cash.
Acid test ratio = (Current assets – Inventory) ÷ Current liabilities
速动比率是一个更严格的衡量指标，因为它剔除了可能无法快速变现的存货。
速动比率 = (流动资产 – 存货) ÷ 流动负债
6. Gearing and Leverage Ratios | 负债权益比与杠杆比率
The gearing ratio explores the proportion of a business’s capital that comes from debt. A highly geared firm will have a greater proportion of long-term borrowing relative to shareholders’ equity.
Gearing ratio = (Non-current liabilities ÷ Total equity) × 100
杠杆比率（负债权益比）反映企业资本中债务所占的比例。高杠杆意味着长期借款在股东权益中的占比较高。
负债权益比 = (非流动负债 ÷ 总权益) × 100
Interest cover demonstrates how many times a business can pay its interest charges out of operating profit, signalling the margin of safety for lenders.
Interest cover = Operating profit ÷ Interest payable
利息覆盖率表明企业用营业利润支付利息费用的次数，反映出贷方的安全余地。
利息覆盖倍数 = 营业利润 ÷ 应付利息
7. Elasticity | 弹性
Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. It is a vital tool for pricing strategy and revenue forecasting.
PED = % change in quantity demanded ÷ % change in price
需求价格弹性（PED）衡量需求量对价格变动的反应程度，是定价策略和收入预测的关键工具。
PED = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 价格变化百分比
Income elasticity of demand (YED) indicates how demand shifts with changes in consumer incomes, helping businesses distinguish between normal and inferior goods.
YED = % change in quantity demanded ÷ % change in income
需求收入弹性（YED）表明需求如何随消费者收入变化而变动，帮助企业区分正常品和低档品。
YED = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 收入变化百分比
8. Productivity and Capacity Utilisation | 生产力与产能利用率
Labour productivity measures the output produced per employee or per hour worked, indicating the efficiency of the workforce.
Labour productivity = Output per period ÷ Number of employees
劳动生产率衡量每名员工或每小时工作所产生的产出，反映劳动力的效率。
劳动生产率 = 一定时期总产出 ÷ 员工人数
Capacity utilisation reveals the extent to which a business uses its productive potential. Low utilisation can signal wasted resources, while very high rates may strain assets.
Capacity utilisation = (Actual output ÷ Maximum possible output) × 100
产能利用率显示企业利用其生产潜力的程度。利用率低可能暗示资源浪费，极高则可能使资产超负荷。
产能利用率 = (实际产出 ÷ 最大可能产出) × 100
9. Employee Performance Metrics | 员工绩效指标
Labour turnover measures the proportion of staff that leave a business over a given period. High turnover suggests dissatisfaction or hiring issues.
Labour turnover = (Number of staff leaving ÷ Average number of staff) × 100
员工流失率衡量特定时期内离开企业的员工比例。流失率高表明员工不满或招聘问题。
员工流失率 = (离职员工人数 ÷ 平均员工人数) × 100
Retention rate looks at the proportion of staff that remain, while absenteeism tracks absence as a percentage of total available working time.
Retention rate = (Number of staff retained ÷ Total staff at start of period) × 100
Absenteeism = (Number of days absent ÷ Total working days) × 100
留任率考察留任员工的比例，缺勤率则追踪缺勤时间占总可用工作时间的百分比。
留任率 = (留任员工人数 ÷ 期初员工总人数) × 100
缺勤率 = (缺勤天数 ÷ 总工作天数) × 100
10. Decision Trees and Expected Value | 决策树与期望值
Expected value combines the potential financial outcomes of a decision with their probabilities, providing a weighted average payoff. It is the cornerstone of decision tree analysis.
Expected value = Σ (Probability × Payoff)
期望值将决策的潜在财务结果与其概率相结合，提供加权平均收益，是决策树分析的核心。
期望值 = Σ (概率 × 收益)
The net gain from a decision is found by subtracting the initial cost of the option from its expected value, allowing managers to compare alternative courses of action on a like-for-like basis.
Net gain = Expected value – Initial cost of decision
决策的净收益是通过从期望值中减去该方案的初始成本得出的，这使管理者能够在公平基础上比较不同行动方案。
净收益 = 期望值 – 决策初始成本
Published by TutorHao | Business Revision Series | aleveler.com
更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
屏轩国际教育cambridge primary/secondary checkpoint, cat4, ukiset,ukcat,igcse,alevel,PAT,STEP,MAT, ibdp,ap,ssat,sat,sat2课程辅导，国外大学本科硕士研究生博士课程论文辅导