IB & AQA Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Guide | IB AQA 化学：期末复习提纲

📚 IB & AQA Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Guide | IB AQA 化学：期末复习提纲

This revision guide pulls together the essential topics from IB Chemistry (SL/HL) and AQA A-level Chemistry, providing a structured checklist for your end-of-term review. Use it to identify knowledge gaps, practise key calculations, and reinforce the conceptual links that examiners love to test.

本复习提纲整合了 IB 化学（标准/高级水平）和 AQA A-level 化学的核心主题，为你提供一个结构化的期末复习清单。可用于查漏补缺、练习关键计算并巩固考官常考的概念联系。

1. Stoichiometry | 化学计量学

The mole is the central unit linking mass, volume, and particle number. Always show conversion factors clearly when solving problems involving limiting reactants or percentage yield.

摩尔是连接质量、体积和粒子数的核心单位。在解决涉及限量反应物或产率百分数的问题时，务必清楚地展示换算因子。

The relationship n = m / M applies to all solids and liquids; for gases, use the ideal gas equation PV = nRT or the molar volume at standard conditions.
关系式 n = m / M 适用于所有固体和液体；对于气体，可使用理想气体状态方程 PV = nRT 或标准条件下的摩尔体积。
IB defines standard temperature and pressure (STP) as 273 K and 100 kPa with a molar volume of 22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹, while AQA commonly uses room temperature and pressure (RTP: 298 K, 100 kPa, 24.0 dm³ mol⁻¹). Always check the context in the exam.
IB 将标准温度与压力 (STP) 定义为 273 K、100 kPa，摩尔体积为 22.7 dm³ mol⁻¹，而 AQA 常使用常温常压 (RTP: 298 K、100 kPa，摩尔体积 24.0 dm³ mol⁻¹)。考试时务必根据题目背景进行确认。

Empirical formulas are calculated from % composition by mass; molecular formulas require the Mr. Hydrated salts involve water of crystallisation which must be accounted for in mass loss calculations.

实验式可由质量百分比计算；分子式则需要相对分子质量。含结晶水的盐类在质量损失计算中必须计入结晶水。

Concentration = n / V (in dm³) | Dilution: C₁V₁ = C₂V₂

Common Pitfall (常见错误)	Check (检查要点)
Forgetting to convert cm³ to dm³	Divide by 1000 for volume; multiply concentration by volume in dm³.
Using mass of mixture rather than pure substance in mole calculations	Identify % purity or mass of active ingredient first.

2. Atomic Structure | 原子结构

Understand how evidence from emission spectra led to the quantum mechanical model. You should be able to write electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z = 36, using the order 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d.

理解发射光谱的证据如何导致量子力学模型。应能写出原子序数至 36 的原子和离子的电子排布，顺序为 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d。

For IB, you also need the electron configuration of Cu and Cr as exceptions. AQA expects you to explain ionisation energy trends across periods and down groups in terms of nuclear charge, shielding, and atomic radius.

对于 IB，还需知道 Cu 和 Cr 作为特例的电子排布。AQA 要求你从核电荷、屏蔽效应和原子半径的角度解释电离能沿周期和族的递变趋势。

First ionisation energy decreases down a group because outer electrons are in higher energy levels, further from the nucleus, with greater shielding.
第一电离能沿族由上至下递减，因为外层电子处于更高的能级，离核更远，屏蔽效应更强。
Across a period, first ionisation energy generally increases due to increasing nuclear charge and similar shielding, with small drops between Be/B and N/O due to subshell stability.
同周期从左到右第一电离能总体增大，因为核电荷增加且屏蔽相似，但由于亚层稳定性在 Be/B 和 N/O 处出现微小下降。

Frequency and energy: E = hν | c = λν

Calculations of wavelength, frequency and energy for electronic transitions are tested in IB Topic 2 and AQA’s section on atomic structure. Use Planck’s constant h = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s.

电子跃迁的波长、频率和能量计算是 IB Topic 2 和 AQA 原子结构部分的考查内容。使用普朗克常数 h = 6.63 × 10⁻³⁴ J s。

3. Bonding and Structure | 化学键与结构

Link the type of bonding to the physical properties of the substance. Ionic substances are brittle and conduct when molten; giant covalent networks have very high melting points; metals are malleable and conduct electricity due to delocalised electrons.

将键合类型与物质物理性质挂钩。离子化合物脆，熔融态导电；巨型共价网络具有极高熔点；金属因离域电子而具备延展性和导电性。

Intermolecular forces addressed in both syllabi: London (dispersion) forces, permanent dipole-dipole interactions, and hydrogen bonding. Be precise about the requirements for hydrogen bonding: H attached to N, O, or F interacting with a lone pair on another N, O, or F.

两个大纲都涉及分子间力：伦敦（色散）力、永久偶极-偶极相互作用和氢键。对于氢键的形成条件须精确表述：与 N、O、F 相连的 H 与另一个 N、O、F 上的孤对电子相互作用。

VSEPR theory predicts shapes: linear (CO₂, BeCl₂), bent (H₂O), trigonal planar (BF₃), tetrahedral (CH₄), trigonal pyramidal (NH₃), and octahedral (SF₆).
VSEPR 理论预测形状：直线形 (CO₂、BeCl₂)、V 形 (H₂O)、平面三角形 (BF₃)、四面体形 (CH₄)、三角锥形 (NH₃) 和八面体形 (SF₆)。
Polarity of whole molecules depends on bond polarity and symmetry. CO₂ is non-polar because the dipoles cancel, while H₂O is polar.
整个分子的极性取决于键的极性和对称性。CO₂ 非极性因偶极抵消，H₂O 为极性。

In AQA, you should also relate structure to properties of polymers, ionic crystals, and metallic lattices. IB HL requires you to discuss sigma and pi bonds, hybridisation (sp, sp², sp³), and delocalisation in benzene.

在 AQA 中还应联系聚合物、离子晶体和金属晶格的结构与性质。IB 高级要求讨论 σ 键和 π 键、杂化 (sp, sp², sp³) 以及苯中的离域。

4. Energetics and Thermochemistry | 能量学与热化学

Enthalpy changes are defined by the system and surroundings. Standard enthalpy of combustion, formation, neutralisation, and reaction are compared using Hess’s law cycles.

焓变由体系与环境定义。利用盖斯定律循环比较标准燃烧焓、生成焓、中和焓和反应焓。

q = mcΔT | ΔH = -q / n

Calorimetry experiments: a known mass of water or solution absorbs heat from a reaction. Remember to include the mass of the solution, not just water, and the specific heat capacity (c) of the final mixture. Extrapolation of temperature–time graphs compensates for heat loss.

量热实验：已知质量的水或溶液从反应中吸收热量。记得包括溶液质量而非仅是水，以及最终混合物的比热容 (c)。外推温度-时间图线以补偿热量损失。

Born-Haber cycles (IB HL and AQA) link lattice enthalpy to other enthalpy changes using an energy level diagram. Lattice enthalpy becomes more exothermic with smaller ions and higher charges. Compare theoretical and experimental values to assess covalent character.

玻恩-哈伯循环 (IB HL 和 AQA) 用能级图将晶格焓与其他焓变相联系。离子越小、电荷越高，晶格焓越负。比较理论值与实验值可评估共价特性。

Entropy and Gibbs free energy: ΔG = ΔH – TΔS. A reaction is spontaneous when ΔG < 0. Both IB and AQA assess the calculation of ΔS from absolute entropies.

熵和吉布斯自由能：ΔG = ΔH – TΔS。当 ΔG < 0 时反应自发。IB 和 AQA 均考查由绝对熵计算 ΔS。

5. Kinetics | 化学动力学

Collision theory: reacting particles must collide with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy (Eₐ) and in the correct orientation. Rate is increased by raising temperature (more particles over Eₐ), increasing concentration/pressure, or using a catalyst that provides an alternative pathway with lower Eₐ.

碰撞理论：反应物粒子必须以不低于活化能 (Eₐ) 的能量并以正确取向碰撞。升高温度（更多粒子超越 Eₐ）、增大浓度/压强或使用提供较低 Eₐ 替代路径的催化剂均可加快速率。

Boltzmann distribution curves should be sketched to show how temperature and catalysts change the proportion of particles with E ≥ Eₐ. The area under the curve remains constant for a fixed number of particles.

应绘制玻尔兹曼分布曲线，展示温度和催化剂如何改变能量不低于 Eₐ 的粒子比例。对于固定粒子数，曲线下面积保持不变。

Rate equations are determined experimentally; orders can only be obtained from data, not from the stoichiometric equation. The rate constant k increases with temperature. For IB HL and AQA, determine rate equation using initial rates or concentration–time graphs.

速率方程由实验确定；反应级数只能由数据得出，不能由化学计量方程式推出。速率常数 k 随温度升高而增大。IB HL 和 AQA 要求通过初始速率法或浓度-时间图确定速率方程。

Order (级数)	Effect on rate when [A] doubles (当 [A] 加倍时对速率的影响)
0	No change (无变化)
1	Rate doubles (速率加倍)
2	Rate quadruples (速率变为四倍)

6. Equilibrium | 化学平衡

Dynamic equilibrium exists in a closed system when the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction. The equilibrium constant Kc (or Kp for gases) is temperature-dependent; changing concentration or pressure does not alter its value, only the position of equilibrium shifts.

动态平衡存在于封闭系统中，当正反应速率等于逆反应速率时建立。平衡常数 Kc (或气体用 Kp) 随温度改变；改变浓度或压强不会改变其数值，仅使平衡位置移动。

Le Chatelier’s principle qualitatively predicts the direction of shift when conditions change. In IB, you must also apply it to changes in temperature, pressure, and concentration. AQA requires constructing Kc expressions from equations and calculating units.

勒夏特列原理可定性预测条件改变时平衡移动的方向。IB 还需应用该原理解释温度、压强和浓度的变化。AQA 要求根据方程式构建 Kc 表达式并计算单位。

For aA + bB ⇌ cC + dD: Kc = [C]ᶜ[D]ᵈ / [A]ᵃ[B]ᵇ

Remember: solids and pure liquids are omitted from Kc expressions. When calculating equilibrium concentrations, set up an ICE table (Initial, Change, Equilibrium) to track species.

切记：固体和纯液体不写入 Kc 表达式。计算平衡浓度时，设置 ICE 表格（初始、变化、平衡）来追踪各物种。

In industrial processes (Haber process, contact process), compromise conditions are chosen to maximise yield and rate. Be prepared to justify the choice of temperature, pressure, and catalyst.

在工业过程（哈伯法、接触法）中，选择折中条件以平衡产率和速率。准备好说明温度、压强和催化剂选择的理由。

7. Acids and Bases | 酸和碱

Bronsted-Lowry theory defines acids as proton donors and bases as proton acceptors. Both IB and AQA expect you to identify conjugate acid-base pairs in equations. Lewis theory broadens the definition to electron pair acceptors/donors (IB HL).

布朗斯特-劳里理论定义酸为质子给体，碱为质子受体。IB 和 AQA 均要求能从方程式中识别共轭酸碱对。路易斯理论将定义拓展至电子对受体/给体 (IB HL)。

pH = -log[H⁺]; pOH = -log[OH⁻]; pH + pOH = 14 at 298 K. For strong acids and bases, dissociation is complete. Weak acids establish an equilibrium: Ka = [H⁺][A⁻] / [HA].

pH = -log[H⁺]；pOH = -log[OH⁻]；298 K 时 pH + pOH = 14。强酸和强碱完全离解。弱酸建立平衡：Ka = [H⁺][A⁻] / [HA]。

Kw = [H⁺][OH⁻] = 1.0 × 10⁻¹⁴ at 298 K

Titration curves plot pH against volume of added titrant. Key features: initial pH, equivalence point pH (7 for strong acid-strong base), and buffer regions. Select appropriate indicators such as phenolphthalein or methyl orange based on the pH range of the vertical section.

滴定曲线绘制 pH 随加入滴定剂体积的变化。关键特征：初始 pH、等当点 pH（强酸强碱为 7）和缓冲区域。根据垂直段的 pH 范围选择合适的指示剂，如酚酞或甲基橙。

Buffer solutions resist pH changes. IB HL and AQA both cover acidic buffers made from a weak acid and its salt. Use the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation: pH = pKa + log([A⁻]/[HA]).

缓冲溶液抵抗 pH 变化。IB HL 和 AQA 均涵盖由弱酸及其盐构成的酸性缓冲液。使用亨德森-哈塞尔巴赫方程：pH = pKa + log([A⁻]/[HA])。

8. Redox Processes | 氧化还原过程

Oxidation is loss of electrons; reduction is gain. Oxidation states (numbers) help track electron transfer. In neutral compounds, sum of oxidation states = 0; in polyatomic ions it equals the ion charge.

氧化是失去电子；还原是得到电子。氧化态（数）有助于追踪电子转移。中性化合物中氧化态总和为 0；多原子离子中则等于离子电荷。

Assign oxidation states using rules: Group 1 metals are +1, Group 2 are +2, oxygen is usually -2 (except peroxides -1), hydrogen is +1 (except metal hydrides -1).
按规则分配氧化态：第1族金属为 +1，第2族为 +2，氧通常为 -2（过氧化物中为 -1），氢为 +1（金属氢化物中为 -1）。
Both IB and AQA require the construction of half-equations in acidic solutions. Combine half-equations balancing atoms, charge, and electrons.
IB 和 AQA 均要求构建酸性条件下的半反应方程式。合并半方程式时需配平原子、电荷和电子数。

Electrochemical cells: the cell potential E°cell = E°cathode – E°anode. A positive E°cell indicates a spontaneous reaction. In IB HL and AQA, the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) is the reference with E° = 0.00 V.

电化学电池：电池电势 E°cell = E°cathode – E°anode。E°cell 为正值表示反应自发。IB HL 和 AQA 中，标准氢电极 (SHE) 为参比电极，E° = 0.00 V。

Electrolysis of molten salts and aqueous solutions: products are determined by the relative ease of discharge. For aqueous solutions, consider the competing reduction of water. Faraday’s laws link charge and mass: m = (Mr I t) / (n F).

熔融盐与水溶液的电解：产物由放电的难易程度决定。水溶液中要考虑水分子还原的竞争。法拉第定律将电荷与质量关联：m = (Mr I t) / (n F)。

9. Organic Chemistry | 有机化学

Master the IUPAC naming into stem, prefix, suffix, and locants. Both syllabi cover homologous series: alkanes, alkenes, alcohols, halogenoalkanes, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, amines, esters, and arenes.

掌握 IUPAC 命名法中的词干、前缀、后缀和位次。两个大纲均涵盖同系物：烷烃、烯烃、醇、卤代烷、醛、酮、羧酸、胺、酯和芳烃。

Mechanistic understanding is crucial. Nucleophilic substitution (SN1/SN2 for IB HL; SN2 for AQA), electrophilic addition in alkenes, electrophilic substitution in benzene, and nucleophilic addition–elimination in acyl chlorides.

机理理解至关重要。亲核取代 (IB HL 含 SN1/SN2；AQA 进行 SN2)、烯烃的亲电加成、苯的亲电取代和酰氯的亲核加成-消除。

Isomerism: structural (chain, position, functional group) and stereoisomerism (cis–trans/E–Z and optical). Optical isomers feature a chiral carbon attached to four different groups; they rotate plane-polarised light.

异构现象：结构异构（碳链、位置、官能团）和立体异构（顺反/E-Z 及旋光异构）。旋光异构体含有一个连接四个不同基团的手性碳，可旋转平面偏振光。

Spectroscopy techniques are used to identify organic compounds. Be confident with infrared (IR) absorption peaks for O-H (broad ~3200-3550), C=O (~1700), and C-O. Mass spectrometry provides the molecular ion peak and fragmentation patterns. NMR (IB HL and AQA) gives information about the chemical environment of H and C atoms.

波谱技术用于鉴定有机化合物。需熟悉红外 (IR) 吸收峰：O-H（宽峰 ~3200-3550）、C=O (~1700) 和 C-O。质谱法提供分子离子峰和裂解方式。核磁共振 (IB HL 和 AQA) 提供氢和碳原子化学环境的信息。

Functional Group (官能团)	Key IR absorption (关键红外吸收)
Alcohol O-H	Strong, broad 3230-3550 cm⁻¹
Carboxylic acid O-H	Very broad 2500-3300 cm⁻¹
Carbonyl C=O	Sharp 1680-1750 cm⁻¹

10. Measurement and Data Processing | 测量与数据处理

All experimental measurements contain uncertainty. Both IB and AQA require you to record absolute uncertainty (±…) and propagate uncertainties for calculated results. Significant figures reflect precision; use the correct number of decimal places for uncertainties.

所有实验测量都包含不确定度。IB 和 AQA 均要求记录绝对不确定度 (±…)，并传递不确定度至计算结果。有效数字反映精密度；不确定度的小数位数需正确使用。

Graphical analysis: draw lines of best fit, calculate slopes, and interpret intercepts. When determining a rate constant or activation energy from a straight-line graph, use the linearised equation: ln k = ln A – Eₐ/(RT).

图线分析：绘制最佳拟合线、计算斜率并解释截距。当利用直线图确定速率常数或活化能时，使用线性化方程：ln k = ln A – Eₐ/(RT)。

Errors: systematic errors shift all readings in one direction (e.g., faulty balance) and can be removed, while random errors vary unpredictably and are minimised through repeats. Percentage uncertainty = (absolute uncertainty / measured value) × 100%.

误差：系统误差使所有读数偏向同一方向（如天平未校准）且可消除，随机误差不可预测地变化，通过重复实验最小化。百分不确定度 = (绝对不确定度 / 测量值) × 100%。

In both syllabi, internal assessment (IA) or required practical write-ups must include evaluation of limitations and suggestions for improvement. Relate each limitation to its impact on results.

在两个大纲中，内部评估 (IA) 或必修实验报告须包含对局限性的评估和改进建议。将每个局限性与对结果的影响联系起来。

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IB & AQA Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Guide | IB AQA 化学：期末复习提纲