📚 IB CCEA Economics: A Guide to Experimental Operations | IB CCEA 经济：实验操作指南
While IB Economics does not include a formal laboratory component like the natural sciences, experimental methods offer a powerful way to explore economic behaviour, test theoretical models, and refine the skills needed for internal assessments and extended essays. This guide walks you through the process of designing, running, and analysing economic experiments – from classroom simulations of markets to carefully controlled behavioural trials – so that you can deepen your understanding of core concepts and gather authentic evidence for your IB portfolio.
尽管 IB 经济学没有像自然科学那样的正式实验环节，但实验方法为探索经济行为、检验理论模型以及提升内部评估与拓展论文所需技能提供了一条有力途径。本指南将带你走过设计、实施和分析经济实验的全过程——从课堂市场模拟到严谨的行为实验——帮助你深化对核心概念的理解，并为你的 IB 学习档案收集真实证据。
1. Why Conduct Experiments in Economics? | 为什么要在经济学中进行实验？
Economics has traditionally been seen as an observational science, where controlled experiments were thought impossible. However, the rise of experimental and behavioural economics has shown that carefully constructed experiments can isolate causal relationships, reveal biases in decision-making, and validate or challenge theoretical predictions. For IB students, experiments make abstract models tangible. By participating in a double-auction market, for instance, you witness the invisible hand guiding prices toward equilibrium, turning a textbook diagram into a lived experience.
经济学传统上被视为一门观察性科学，人们曾认为受控实验是不可能的。然而，实验经济学和行为经济学的兴起表明，精心设计的实验能够分离因果关系、揭示决策中的偏差，并证实或挑战理论预测。对 IB 学生而言，实验能让抽象模型变得可触可感。例如，通过参与一场双向拍卖市场，你能目睹“看不见的手”如何将价格推向均衡，让课本图示变成真实体验。
Experimental work also hones critical IA competencies: identifying economic concepts, collecting primary data, applying appropriate analytical tools, and evaluating the validity of assumptions. Whether you are exploring the elasticity of demand with a classroom candy market or testing the ultimatum game with peers, you are engaging in the same sort of evidence-based inquiry that underpins high-scoring economics commentaries.
实验工作还能磨砺 IA 的关键能力：识别经济概念、收集一手数据、运用恰当的分析工具以及评价假设的有效性。无论你是在课堂糖果市场中探索需求弹性，还是与同伴一起测试最后通牒博弈，你正在进行的正是支撑高分经济评论的那种循证探究。
2. Types of Economic Experiments | 经济实验的类型
Economic experiments can be classified into three broad categories, each serving a different investigative purpose. Market experiments simulate trading situations to observe price formation and allocative efficiency. Examples include classroom auctions for coffee vouchers, where students act as buyers and sellers, and posted-offer markets where sellers set prices and buyers decide whether to purchase.
经济实验大致可分为三类，每一类服务于不同的研究目的。市场实验模拟交易情境，以观察价格形成和配置效率。例子包括咖啡馆代金券的课堂拍卖（学生扮演买方和卖方），以及公布报价市场（卖方设定价格，买方决定是否购买）。
Decision-making experiments probe individual choice under risk, uncertainty, or strategic interaction. Classic designs are the prisoner’s dilemma, the public goods game, and risk-aversion elicitation using lottery choices. These are widely used in IB Behavioural Economics topics to illustrate bounded rationality, framing effects, and social preferences.
决策实验探究个体在风险、不确定或策略互动下的选择。经典设计包括囚徒困境、公共物品博弈以及通过彩票选择进行的风险厌恶诱发。这些被广泛用于 IB 行为经济学主题，以说明有限理性、框架效应和社会偏好。
Field experiments take the lab into real-world settings, applying treatments – such as reminders to save or default option changes – and measuring real behaviour. While more difficult to organise within a school context, simplified field experiments (e.g. altering the layout of a school canteen to nudge healthier food choices) can provide excellent IA material.
田野实验将实验室搬到真实情境中，施加处理（例如储蓄提醒或默认选项变更），并衡量真实行为。尽管在学校环境中组织起来更为困难，但简化的田野实验（如改变学校食堂布局以助推更健康的食物选择）可以成为极佳的 IA 素材。
3. Designing an Economic Experiment | 设计经济实验
Every robust experiment starts with a clear research question and a testable hypothesis, often derived from an IB syllabus statement. For instance, “Does a higher per-unit tax reduce market quantity traded by the amount predicted by the standard supply-and-demand model?” becomes the focal point. Then, identify your independent variable (e.g. tax rate) and dependent variable (e.g. number of units traded), and plan how to control extraneous factors.
每一个严谨的实验都始于一个明确的研究问题和一个可检验的假说，这通常来自 IB 大纲陈述。例如，“更高的单位税是否会按标准供需模型预测的幅度减少市场交易量？”这便成为焦点。随后，确定你的自变量（如税率）和因变量（如交易单位数），并计划如何控制外来因素。
Random assignment of participants to treatment and control groups is essential for establishing causation. If you cannot run a full randomized control trial, consider a within-subject design where the same participants face different conditions sequentially, paying attention to order effects. Also, build in sufficient repetitions (rounds) to allow learning and convergence, because initial choices in economic experiments often contain noise.
将被试随机分配到实验组和控制组对于建立因果关系至关重要。如果你无法进行完全随机对照试验，可以考虑被试内设计，即同一批被试按顺序面对不同条件，但需注意顺序效应。此外，要设置足够的重复轮次（局），以容许学习和收敛，因为经济实验中的初期选择通常含有噪音。
Instruction scripts must be clear, value-neutral, and piloted to avoid framing biases. If your experiment involves money, use a payoff schedule expressed in ‘experimental currency units’ that are converted at a known rate into real cash or small prizes to maintain incentive compatibility.
指导语脚本必须清晰、价值中立，并经过试测，以避免框架偏差。如果你的实验涉及金钱，采用以“实验货币单位”表示的报酬表，并按已知比率兑换成真实现金或小奖品，以保持激励相容。
4. Setting Up Economic Models and Hypotheses | 建立经济学模型与假设
A well-specified experiment is always anchored in theory. Write down the formal model that generates your prediction. For a tax-incidence experiment, you might use the demand equation Qd = 100 – 2P and supply equation Qs = -20 + 3P, with a per-unit tax of t added to the seller’s cost. The competitive equilibrium without tax occurs where 100 – 2P = -20 + 3P, giving P* = 24 and Q* = 52. With a tax of 5, the new supply becomes Qs = -20 + 3(P – 5), shifting equilibrium to P* = 27, Q* = 46.
一个设计周密的实验总是扎根于理论。请写下生成你预测的形式化模型。以税收归宿实验为例，你可以使用需求方程 Qd = 100 – 2P 和供给方程 Qs = -20 + 3P，并对卖方成本施加每单位税 t。无税时的竞争均衡出现在 100 – 2P = -20 + 3P，解得 P* = 24，Q* = 52。当征收 5 单位税时，新供给变为 Qs = -20 + 3(P – 5)，均衡移动到 P* = 27, Q* = 46。
State your null hypothesis (H0) and alternative hypothesis (H1) in a way that can be tested with the data you will collect. For example: H0: “The after-tax quantity traded is not significantly different from 46 units.” H1: “The after-tax quantity traded is significantly different from 46 units.” Using the model parameters, also derive comparative static predictions about consumer surplus, producer surplus, and deadweight loss, because these are the welfare measures that IB exam questions frequently require.
用你能收集到的数据可检验的方式陈述你的零假设（H₀）和备择假设（H₁）。例如，H₀：“税后交易量与 46 单位没有显著差异。”H₁：“税后交易量与 46 单位有显著差异。”利用模型参数，还可推导出关于消费者剩余、生产者剩余和无谓损失的比较静态预测，因为这些正是 IB 考题经常要求的福利衡量标准。
5. Running the Experiment: Steps and Precautions | 实施实验：步骤与注意事项
Begin by preparing physical or digital materials: role cards for buyers and sellers, record sheets, payoff tables, and a visible timer if rounds are limited. In a classroom auction, for instance, assign half the students ‘buyer’ values (maximum willingness to pay) and half ‘seller’ costs (minimum acceptable price). Each participant should only see their own private information to preserve the independence of decisions.
首先准备实体或数字材料：买方和卖方的角色卡、记录表、报酬表，如果各轮次有时间限制，还需一个可见的计时器。例如，在课堂拍卖中，给一半学生分配“买方”价值（最高支付意愿），另一半分配“卖方”成本（最低可接受价格）。每个参与者只能看到自己的私人信息，以保持决策独立性。
During the session, enforce the rules strictly: no side conversations, no alteration of assigned values, and adherence to the trading protocol. Use an oral double-auction format (buyers call out bids, sellers call out offers) or a silent posted-price format, depending on the market structure you are investigating. Record every transaction’s price and quantity in real time, ideally on a shared spreadsheet or whiteboard, so participants can see market-wide outcomes without identifying individual deals.
在实验过程中，严格执行规则：禁止私下交谈，不得更改分配的价值，遵守交易程序。根据你所研究市场结构的不同，可采用口头双向拍卖形式（买方喊出出价，卖方喊出要价）或无声公布价格形式。实时记录每一笔交易的价格和数量，最好用共享电子表格或白板，让参与者看到整个市场的结果，而无需识别个别交易。
After the last round, immediately calculate the earnings of each participant and distribute prizes if promised. This maintains trust and incentivises future participation. Also, conduct a short debriefing in which you connect observed patterns with the economic theory, but avoid introducing new analytical language that might contaminate a second session if you plan to replicate the experiment.
最后一轮结束后，立即计算每位参与者的收益，并如约分发奖品。这能维持信任，并激励未来的参与。同时，进行一次简短的反馈，将观察到的模式与经济理论联系起来，但避免引入新的分析性语言，以免在计划重复实验时污染第二次实验的数据。
6. Data Collection Methods | 数据收集方法
Accurate data collection is the backbone of empirical economic analysis. For a market experiment, the core data points are the transaction prices, quantities traded per round, and the gap between buyer value and seller cost (the gains from trade). Record these in a structured table with columns: Round, Buyer ID, Seller ID, Transaction Price, Quantity, Buyer Value, Seller Cost, and Surplus.
准确的数据收集是实证经济分析的主干。对一个市场实验而言，核心数据点是交易价格、每轮交易量，以及买方价值与卖方成本的差额（交易收益）。将这些数据记录在一个结构化的表格中，列包括：轮次、买方编号、卖方编号、交易价格、数量、买方价值、卖方成本以及剩余。
| Round | Transaction Price (£) | Quantity Traded | Total Surplus |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | 5.20 | 12 | 45.60 |
| 2 | 4.90 | 15 | 58.20 |
| 3 | 4.95 | 14 | 55.80 |
For decision-making experiments, capture each participant’s choice in each scenario, along with demographic covariates (age, year group, prior economics exposure) that you may later use as control variables. If privacy is a concern, assign anonymous participant codes. Always store raw data securely and back it up before any analysis.
对决策实验而言，要捕捉每个参与者在每种场景下的选择，以及人口统计学协变量（年龄、年级、先前的经济学接触），这些可以随后用作控制变量。如果涉及隐私，请分配匿名参与编号。务必安全存储原始数据，并在分析前做好备份。
Where possible, supplement quantitative records with qualitative notes: observed hesitations, patterns of collusion, or unexpected interpretations of instructions. These qualitative insights can enrich your evaluation section, showing evaluative thinking that matches IB’s highest mark bands.
在可能的情况下，用量化记录补充定性笔记：观察到的犹豫、合谋模式或对指导语的意外解读。这些定性洞见能丰富你的评价部分，展现出与 IB 最高分档匹配的评判性思维。
7. Analysing Experimental Results | 分析实验结果
Begin your analysis by visualising the data. Plot the mean transaction price per round on a line graph, superimposing the predicted equilibrium price from your theoretical model. If the data exhibit convergence, the line should approach the equilibrium over rounds. Calculate measures of central tendency (mean, median) and dispersion (standard deviation, interquartile range) for each round.
开始分析时，先将数据可视化。在折线图上绘出每轮的平均交易价格，并叠加上你理论模型预测的均衡价格。如果数据呈现收敛趋势，那么各轮次的折线应该逐渐靠近均衡。计算每轮的集中趋势（均值、中位数）和离散程度（标准差、四分位距）。
For hypothesis testing, a paired t-test can determine whether the post-tax average quantity differs significantly from the model’s prediction. Using the earlier example, let μ be the mean post-tax quantity across your experimental sessions. Compute t = (sample mean – 46) / (s/√n), where s is the sample standard deviation and n the number of independent sessions. If the absolute value of t exceeds the critical value at the 5% significance level, you can reject H0. Report p-values to strengthen your commentary.
在假设检验中，配对 t 检验可以判断税后平均数量是否与模型预测存在显著差异。沿用前例，令 μ 为你各实验场次税后数量的均值。计算 t = (样本均值 – 46) / (s/√n)，其中 s 为样本标准差，n 为独立场次的数量。若 t 的绝对值超过 5% 显著性水平下的临界值，你就能拒绝 H₀。报告 p 值能增强你的评论。
Economic significance is equally important: quantify how much consumer surplus, producer surplus, and deadweight loss deviated from predictions. A table comparing theoretical and observed welfare measures provides a clear, IB-appropriate way to demonstrate analytical rigour. Remember to discuss reasons for any deviation – transaction costs, irrational behaviour, or imperfect market institutions.
经济显著性同样重要：量化消费者剩余、生产者剩余和无谓损失偏离预测的程度。用一张比较理论与观测福利指标的表格，能以一种清晰且符合 IB 要求的方式展示分析的严谨性。记住要讨论任何偏离的原因——交易成本、非理性行为或不完善的市场制度。
8. Linking Experiments to IB Economic Theory | 将实验与 IB 经济理论联系起来
Every experiment you run should be explicitly mapped to the IB Economics syllabus. If you conduct a public goods game, link it to the topics of market failure, non-excludability, and the free-rider problem (Unit 2: Microeconomics). Use the data to calculate the marginal private benefit and marginal social benefit divergence, referencing the concepts of externalities.
你所进行的每一个实验都应当明确映射到 IB 经济学大纲上。如果你实施了一个公共物品博弈，就要将其与市场失灵、非排他性和搭便车问题（第 2 单元：微观经济学）联系起来。利用数据计算边际私人收益与边际社会收益的差距，并引用外部性概念。
For an experiment on asymmetric information (e.g. a ‘market for lemons’ with hidden quality), connect your findings to adverse selection, signalling, and possible government responses. This not only deepens your theoretical understanding but also equips you with real-world examples that you can directly insert into Paper 1 and Paper 2 essays, where “real-world examples” are explicitly rewarded.
对于一个有关信息不对称的实验（例如隐藏质量的“柠檬市场”），要将你的发现与逆向选择、信号传递以及可能的政府应对措施联系起来。这不仅加深了你的理论理解，还为你提供了可直接写入卷 1 和卷 2 论文的真实世界例子，而“真实世界例子”在这类考试中会明确得分。
Behavioural economics experiments are particularly rich for IB: show how cognitive biases, such as loss aversion or present bias, cause observed behaviour to diverge from rational agent predictions. Mention key thinkers such as Kahneman and Tversky, and use their terminology – nudges, choice architecture, heuristics – to demonstrate a command of the extension material.
行为经济学实验对 IB 而言尤其丰富：展示诸如损失厌恶或当下偏见等认知偏差如何导致观察到的行为偏离理性主体预测。提及卡尼曼和特沃斯基等关键思想家，并使用他们的术语——助推、选择架构、启发式——以展现你对拓展材料的掌握。
9. Ethical Considerations | 伦理考量
Even classroom experiments demand ethical rigour. All participants must give informed consent; for students under 18, parental consent may be required depending on your school policy. Explain the purpose of the experiment, the procedures, and any risks (usually minimal, such as mild frustration) in plain language.
即使是课堂实验也要求伦理上的严谨。所有参与者必须给予知情同意；对 18 岁以下的学生，根据学校政策可能需要家长同意。用平实的语言解释实验目的、程序及任何风险（通常极小，如轻微挫败感）。
Deception – such as telling participants they are studying one thing when the true purpose is different – is generally discouraged in economic experiments because it can undermine trust and contaminate future sessions. If your design unavoidably requires incomplete disclosure (e.g. not revealing the exact research question to avoid demand effects), plan a thorough debriefing immediately afterwards, and offer the right to withdraw data.
欺骗——例如告诉参与者他们在研究某一事物，而真实目的不同——在经济实验中通常不被鼓励，因为它会破坏信任并污染未来的实验。如果你的设计不可避免地需要不完全公开（例如为避免需求效应而不透露确切研究问题），请安排实验后立即进行充分的反馈说明，并给予撤回数据的权利。
Anonymise all data at the point of collection; replace names with codes and store the linking list separately under password protection. When you present results, report only aggregate statistics or anonymised quotes. These practices are entirely in line with the IB’s academic integrity policy and prepare you for ethical research at university.
在收集数据时便进行匿名化处理；用编码代替姓名，并将对应名单单独加密存储。在报告结果时，只呈现汇总统计或匿名引述。这些做法完全符合 IB 的学术诚信政策，并为你日后大学里的伦理研究做好准备。
10. Writing Up an Experiment: Connecting with the IA | 撰写实验报告：与 IA 结合
An experimental write-up can serve as the primary source for one of your three IB Economics commentaries, provided it meets the IA criteria. Structure the commentary as you would for any article-based IA: start with a concise summary of the experiment, identify the key economic concepts (usually two to four), construct a well-labelled diagram using your own data, and analyse the outcomes in terms of efficiency and equity.
一份实验报告可以作为你三篇 IB 经济学评论之一的原始素材，前提是它满足 IA 标准。按照任何基于文章的 IA 那样来构建评论：先简要总结实验，识别关键经济概念（通常两到四个），用你自己的数据构建一幅标注清晰的图示，并从效率和公平的角度分析结果。
The diagram is crucial. For a market experiment, draw a supply-and-demand diagram with the actual pre-tax and post-tax equilibrium points plotted from your data, labelling the price, quantity, consumer surplus, producer surplus, and deadweight loss. Use colour coding or shading to enhance clarity. The commentary’s evaluation paragraph can then discuss the limitations of the experimental setting: small sample size, non-representative participant pool, artificial incentives, and possible experimenter demand effects.
图示至关重要。对市场实验而言，画一幅供需图，并标出根据你的数据绘制的事前与事后实际均衡点，标注价格、数量、消费者剩余、生产者剩余和无谓损失。用颜色编码或阴影增强清晰度。评论的评价段落随后可以讨论实验情境的局限：样本量小、被试群体不具代表性、人工激励以及可能的实验者需求效应。
To attain the highest IA marks, connect the experimental findings back to a real-world policy issue. For example, if your tax experiment showed a larger-than-predicted reduction in quantity, relate it to the debate on sugar taxes and discuss elasticities in real markets. Such a connection showcases the “synthesis and evaluation” that IB examiners look for.
为获得 IA 最高分，要将实验结果联系回真实的政策议题。例如，如果你的征税实验显示数量减少幅度大于预测，就将其与糖税辩论联系起来，并讨论真实市场中的弹性。这种联系展现出 IB 考官所寻找的“综合与评价”。
11. Common Experiment Case Studies | 常见实验案例
Several off-the-shelf experiments have been refined for classroom use and align neatly with the IB syllabus. The double-oral auction is the classic market experiment; it reliably converges to competitive equilibrium in as few as five rounds, even with very few participants. Use it to illustrate the role of price as a rationing and signalling mechanism (Unit 2).
已有若干现成的实验经过优化，适合课堂使用，且与 IB 大纲紧密贴合。双向口头拍卖是经典的市场实验；即使参与者很少，它也能在短短五轮内可靠地收敛到竞争均衡。用它来阐释价格作为配给和信号机制的作用（第 2 单元）。
The public goods game involves groups of four, each deciding how much of an endowment to contribute to a group project. Contributions are multiplied and shared equally. Without punishment, contributions typically decay over rounds, providing a vivid demonstration of the free-rider problem. Introduce a ‘punishment’ stage to test how institutions can sustain cooperation.
公共物品博弈涉及四人小组，每位成员决定将多少初始资金投入一个集体项目。投入的资金被乘以一个倍数后平均分配。在没有惩罚的情况下，投入通常随轮次递减，生动地展示了搭便车问题。引入一个“惩罚”阶段，以检验制度如何维持合作。
The ultimatum game and dictator game probe fairness preferences. A proposer splits a fixed sum; the responder in the ultimatum game can accept or reject (both get zero). Rejections of low offers challenge the assumption of pure self-interest, neatly feeding into the behavioural economics extension of the IB course and discussions on equity versus equality.
最后通牒博弈和独裁者博弈考察公平偏好。提议者分割一笔固定资金；最后通牒博弈中的回应者可以接受或拒绝（拒绝则双方收益为零）。对过低出价的拒绝挑战了纯粹自利假设，完美接入 IB 课程的行为经济学拓展部分以及关于公平与平等的讨论。
The asset market bubble experiment, where participants trade an asset with a known dividend stream, often generates price bubbles and crashes, demonstrating departures from efficient market hypotheses. This is excellent for the macroeconomics unit on financial markets and for discussions of irrational exuberance.
资产市场泡沫实验（参与者交易一种已知红利的资产）常常产生价格泡沫和崩盘，显示出对有效市场假说的偏离。这极好地服务于宏观经济学中有关金融市场的单元以及关于非理性繁荣的讨论。
12. Conclusion and Looking Forward | 结论与展望
Experimental methods transform economics from a set of static diagrams into a living discipline where you can test ideas, confront assumptions, and develop an empirical mindset. For the IB student, the process of hypothesising, collecting data, graphing results, and evaluating limitations mirrors the exact skills demanded by internal assessments and the extended essay.
实验方法将经济学从一组静态图示转化为一门活生生的学科，在其中你能检验思路、挑战假设，并培养实证思维。对 IB 学生而言，提出假说、收集数据、绘制结果图表以及评估局限的过程，正反映了内部评估和拓展论文所要求的那一套技能。
As you advance in your studies, consider extending your experiments: run the same protocol with different age groups to test developmental hypotheses, introduce a carbon tax treatment alongside a unit tax to compare efficiency, or move the experiment online to examine how anonymity changes behaviour. Each extension deepens your command of economic methodology and provides fresh material for top-band IA work.
随着你学习的深入，可以考虑拓展你的实验：在不同年龄段运行相同的方案以检验发展假说，在单位税之外再加入碳税处理以比较效率，或将实验移至线上以考察匿名性如何改变行为。每一次拓展都会加深你对经济学方法的掌握，并为高分段 IA 作品提供新鲜素材。
Keep a laboratory notebook or digital diary of your experimental journey. Thoughtfully documented pilot sessions, tweaks to instructions, and reflections on unexpected outcomes are exactly the sort of evidence that IB moderators value when authenticating student work. Embrace the role of an experimental economist – the inquiry skills you build now will serve you well beyond the examination hall.
为自己准备一本实验日记或数字日志。认真记录试测过程、对指导语的调整以及对非预期结果的反思，这正是 IB 评审员在认证学生作品时所看重的证据。请拥抱实验经济学家的角色——你现在培养的探究技能将惠及考场之外更远的地方。
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