📚 IGCSE CCEA Physics: Formula Summary Handbook | IGCSE CCEA 物理：公式汇总手册
This handbook brings together all the essential equations required for the IGCSE CCEA Physics examinations. Each formula is presented with a brief explanation of its physical meaning and the corresponding Chinese description to support bilingual revision.
本手册汇总了 IGCSE CCEA 物理考试所需的所有核心公式。每个公式均附有简明的物理意义说明及对应的中文解释，便于双语复习。
1. Kinematics | 运动学
Average speed is defined as the total distance travelled divided by the time taken.
average speed = total distance / time taken
平均速度等于总路程除以所用时间。
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
a = (v − u) / t
加速度等于速度的变化量除以发生该变化所用的时间。
For motion with uniform acceleration, the final velocity is related to initial velocity, acceleration and time.
v = u + at
匀加速直线运动中，末速度等于初速度加上加速度与时间的乘积。
The displacement covered during uniform acceleration can be expressed in terms of initial velocity, time and acceleration.
s = ut + ½at²
匀加速运动中的位移等于初速度乘以时间加上二分之一乘以加速度乘以时间的平方。
An alternative relation linking velocities, acceleration and displacement without involving time.
v² = u² + 2as
公式将末速度、初速度、加速度和位移联系起来，不包含时间变量。
2. Forces and Motion | 力与运动
Newton’s second law states that the resultant force acting on an object is equal to the product of its mass and acceleration.
F = m × a
牛顿第二定律表明，作用在物体上的合力等于物体的质量乘以加速度。
Weight is the gravitational force on a mass.
W = m × g
重力（重量）等于质量乘以重力场强度。
Momentum is the product of mass and velocity.
p = m × v
动量等于质量与速度的乘积。
Force is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
F = Δp / t
力等于动量的变化率。
The principle of moments for a body in rotational equilibrium.
sum of clockwise moments = sum of anticlockwise moments
力矩平衡原理：顺时针力矩之和等于逆时针力矩之和。
3. Energy, Work and Power | 能量、功与功率
Work done by a constant force is the product of the force and the distance moved in the direction of the force.
W = F × d
力所做的功等于力乘以在力的方向上移动的距离。
Kinetic energy depends on mass and the square of speed.
KE = ½mv²
动能等于二分之一乘以质量乘以速度的平方。
Gravitational potential energy gained when an object is raised against gravity.
GPE = mgh
重力势能等于质量乘以重力场强度乘以高度变化。
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy.
P = W / t or P = E / t
功率是做功或能量转移的速率。
Power can also be expressed for a constant force moving at constant velocity.
P = F × v
当力恒定且物体匀速运动时，功率等于力与速度的乘积。
Efficiency compares useful output energy or power to total input.
efficiency = useful output energy / total input energy
效率等于有用的输出能量与总输入能量之比，通常以百分比表示。
4. Density and Pressure | 密度与压强
Density is mass per unit volume.
ρ = m / V
密度等于质量除以体积。
Pressure is defined as force per unit area.
p = F / A
压强等于力除以受力面积。
The pressure exerted by a column of liquid depends on depth, density and gravitational field strength.
p = hρg
液体内部的压强等于液体的深度乘以密度再乘以重力场强度。
5. Thermal Physics | 热物理
The energy required to raise the temperature of a substance without changing state.
Q = mcΔθ
使物体温度升高所需的热量等于质量乘以比热容乘以温度变化。
The energy required to change the state of a substance at constant temperature.
Q = mL
改变物态所需的热量等于质量乘以比潜热。熔化时用熔化潜热，汽化时用汽化潜热。
6. Waves | 波
The speed of a wave is the product of its frequency and wavelength.
v = fλ
波速等于频率乘以波长。
Frequency is the reciprocal of the period.
f = 1 / T
频率等于周期的倒数。
7. Light and Optics | 光学
Refractive index relates the angle of incidence and angle of refraction at a boundary.
n = sin i / sin r
折射率等于入射角的正弦值与折射角的正弦值之比。
Refractive index can also be expressed as the speed of light in vacuum divided by the speed in the medium.
n = c / v
折射率也等于真空中的光速与介质中的光速之比。
Critical angle for total internal reflection.
sin c = 1 / n
临界角的正弦值等于折射率的倒数。
Thin lens formula relates focal length, object distance and image distance.
1/f = 1/u + 1/v
薄透镜公式表明焦距的倒数等于物距的倒数加上像距的倒数。
Linear magnification produced by a lens.
m = v / u
线性放大率等于像距除以物距。
8. Electricity | 电学
Ohm’s law links potential difference, current and resistance.
V = IR
欧姆定律：导体两端的电压等于流过导体的电流乘以导体的电阻。
Electric charge is the product of current and time.
Q = It
电荷量等于电流强度与通电时间的乘积。
Electrical power can be expressed as the product of potential difference and current.
P = IV
电功率等于电压与电流的乘积。
Using Ohm’s law, power can be rewritten in terms of current and resistance or voltage and resistance.
P = I²R and P = V² / R
电功率还可以表示为电流平方乘以电阻，或电压平方除以电阻。
Electrical energy transferred is power multiplied by time.
E = Pt
消耗的电能等于电功率乘以用电时间。
Resistors in series combine by simple addition.
Rₜₒₜₐₗ = R₁ + R₂ + …
串联电路的总电阻等于各电阻之和。
For resistors in parallel, the reciprocal of the total resistance is the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
1/Rₜₒₜₐₗ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …
并联电路中，总电阻的倒数等于各支路电阻倒数之和。
9. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁与电磁
For an ideal transformer, the ratio of voltages equals the ratio of turns.
Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ
理想变压器的原副线圈电压之比等于其匝数之比。
Assuming 100% efficiency, input power equals output power in a transformer.
Vₚ Iₚ = Vₛ Iₛ
在理想变压器中，输入功率等于输出功率。
The force on a current-carrying conductor in a magnetic field (motor effect).
F = BIL
通电导体在磁场中所受的力等于磁感应强度乘以电流强度乘以导体在磁场中的有效长度。
10. Radioactivity and Atomic Physics | 放射性及原子物理
The number of radioactive nuclei remaining after a given number of half-lives can be calculated using an exponential decay model.
N = N₀ (½)ⁿ
剩余放射性核的数目等于初始数目乘以二分之一的总半衰期次数的次数幂。
Activity of a radioactive sample also follows a similar decay pattern.
A = A₀ (½)ⁿ
放射性活度也以同样的半衰期规律衰减。
Nuclear equations balance mass numbers and atomic numbers. For alpha decay:
ᵃC parent → ᵃ⁻⁴C daughter + ⁴₂He
核反应方程遵循质量数和电荷数守恒。α衰变中，子核质量数减4，原子序数减2。
For beta-minus decay, a neutron converts to a proton with emission of an electron and an antineutrino.
ⁿₚX → ⁿₚ₊₁Y + ⁰₋₁e
β⁻衰变中，原子核质量数不变，原子序数增加1。
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