📚 IGCSE Edexcel Chemistry: End-of-Term Revision Outline | IGCSE Edexcel 化学：期末复习提纲
This revision outline provides a comprehensive checklist of the key topics covered in the IGCSE Edexcel Chemistry syllabus. Use it to structure your final review, test your understanding of core concepts, and practise essential calculations and equations.
本复习提纲为 IGCSE Edexcel 化学课程的重要主题提供一份全面检查清单。用它来规划期末复习，检验你对核心概念的理解，并练习关键计算和方程式。
1. States of Matter and Particle Theory | 物质状态与粒子理论
The three states of matter are solid, liquid and gas. Particle theory describes the arrangement, movement and energy of particles in each state. Solids have fixed shape and volume with particles vibrating in fixed positions; liquids have fixed volume but take the shape of their container, with particles sliding past each other; gases have no fixed shape or volume and particles move rapidly in all directions.
物质三态为固态、液态和气态。粒子理论描述了每种状态下粒子的排列、运动与能量。固体有固定形状和体积，粒子在固定位置振动；液体有固定体积但取容器形状，粒子相互滑动；气体无固定形状与体积，粒子向各个方向快速运动。
Changes of state (melting, boiling, freezing, condensing, sublimation) occur at specific temperatures and involve energy changes. Diffusion is the movement of particles from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration; it is fastest in gases and slowest in solids, and evidence for diffusion supports the particle model.
状态变化（熔化、沸腾、凝固、冷凝、升华）在特定温度下发生并伴随能量变化。扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的运动；在气体中最快，在固体中最慢，扩散的证据支持粒子模型。
The relative energy of particles increases from solid to liquid to gas. Higher temperature means greater average kinetic energy of particles. In a liquid, the particles with the highest energy escape at the surface during evaporation, which occurs below the boiling point.
粒子相对能量从固体到液体再到气体逐渐增加。温度越高，粒子的平均动能越大。在液体中，能量最高的粒子在蒸发时从表面逸出，蒸发在沸点以下发生。
2. Atoms, Elements and Compounds | 原子、元素与化合物
An atom consists of a nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons in shells. The atomic number (Z) is the number of protons, and the mass number (A) is the total number of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons; they have identical chemical properties but slightly different physical properties.
原子由一个包含质子和中子的原子核以及核外电子壳层组成。原子序数 (Z) 是质子数，质量数 (A) 是质子与中子总数。同位素是质子数相同而中子数不同的同一元素原子；它们化学性质相同，但物理性质略有差异。
Electrons are arranged in shells: the first shell holds up to 2 electrons, the second and third shells hold up to 8 electrons each. The electronic configuration determines an element’s chemical reactivity and valency.
电子按壳层排布：第一壳层最多容纳2个电子，第二和第三壳层各最多容纳8个电子。电子排布决定了元素的化学活泼性和化合价。
Elements are pure substances that cannot be broken down; compounds are formed when two or more elements chemically combine. Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals through electron transfer, forming giant ionic lattices. Covalent bonding involves sharing of electron pairs between non-metals, forming simple molecules or giant covalent structures. Metallic bonding is the attraction between positive metal ions and delocalised electrons, explaining conductivity and malleability.
元素是不能分解的纯物质；化合物由两种或多种元素化学结合而成。离子键通过电子转移在金属与非金属间形成，构成巨型离子晶格。共价键涉及非金属间共享电子对，形成简单分子或巨型共价结构。金属键是正金属离子与离域电子间的吸引，这解释了导电性和延展性。
3. Stoichiometry and the Mole Concept | 化学计量与摩尔概念
The mole is the unit for amount of substance; one mole of any substance contains 6.02 x 1023 particles (the Avogadro constant). The molar mass (Mr) is the mass of one mole of a substance in grams, numerically equal to the relative atomic or formula mass.
摩尔是物质的量的单位；1摩尔任何物质含有6.02 x 1023个粒子（阿伏伽德罗常数）。摩尔质量 (Mr) 是1摩尔物质的质量（克），数值上等于相对原子质量或相对式量。
moles (n) = mass (m) / molar mass (Mr)
摩尔数 (n) = 质量 (m) / 摩尔质量 (Mr)
At room temperature and pressure (r.t.p.), one mole of any gas occupies a volume of 24 dm3. Therefore, the volume of a gas can be calculated using: n = volume (dm3) / 24, or volume = n x 24.
在常温常压 (r.t.p.) 下，1摩尔任何气体的体积为24 dm3。因此，气体体积可用：n = 体积 (dm3) / 24，或体积 = n x 24 计算。
Concentration of a solution is the amount of solute per unit volume, typically mol dm-3. The relationship is: concentration (c) = moles (n) / volume (V in dm3). Empirical formula is the simplest whole-number ratio of atoms in a compound; molecular formula is the actual number of atoms. Percentage yield = (actual yield / theoretical yield) x 100%.
溶液浓度是单位体积内溶质的量，通常用 mol dm-3 表示。关系为：浓度 (c) = 摩尔数 (n) / 体积 (V，dm3)。经验式是化合物中原子最简整数比；分子式是实际原子数目。百分产率 = (实际产量 / 理论产量) x 100%。
4. Electrolysis and Electrochemistry | 电解与电化学
Electrolysis is the decomposition of an ionic compound using direct current electricity. An electrolyte is a molten or dissolved ionic compound that conducts electricity. The positive electrode (anode) attracts anions; oxidation occurs. The negative electrode (cathode) attracts cations; reduction occurs.
电解是用直流电分解离子化合物的过程。电解质是熔融或溶解状态能导电的离子化合物。正极（阳极）吸引阴离子，发生氧化反应；负极（阴极）吸引阳离子，发生还原反应。
In the electrolysis of molten compounds, the metal cation is reduced at the cathode (e.g., Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb), and the non-metal anion is oxidised at the anode (e.g., 2Br– → Br2 + 2e–).
在熔融化合物电解中，金属阳离子在阴极被还原（如 Pb2+ + 2e– → Pb），非金属阴离子在阳极被氧化（如 2Br– → Br2 + 2e–）。
For aqueous solutions, water molecules also dissociate to give H+ and OH– ions, competing at electrodes. At the cathode, the less reactive metal or hydrogen is discharged according to the reactivity series. At the anode, a halide ion (> 1 mol dm-3) is discharged in preference to OH–, or oxygen is produced if no halide is present. Electroplating uses electrolysis to coat a metal object with a thin layer of another metal.
对于水溶液，水分子也会电离出 H+ 和 OH–，在电极上竞争放电。在阴极，根据金属活动性顺序，较不活泼的金属或氢气被析出。在阳极，卤素离子（浓度 > 1 mol dm-3）优先于 OH– 放电，若没有卤素离子则生成氧气。电镀利用电解在金属表面镀薄层金属。
5. Energetics | 化学能量学
Exothermic reactions release energy to the surroundings, causing a temperature increase (e.g., combustion, neutralisation). Endothermic reactions absorb energy, causing a temperature decrease (e.g., thermal decomposition, photosynthesis). Enthalpy change (ΔH) is negative for exothermic and positive for endothermic reactions.
放热反应向环境释放能量，导致温度升高（如燃烧、中和）。吸热反应吸收能量，导致温度降低（如热分解、光合作用）。焓变 (ΔH) 放热为负，吸热为正。
Bond breaking is endothermic and bond making is exothermic. The overall enthalpy change can be calculated using bond energies: ΔH = sum of bond energies broken – sum of bond energies formed. Energy level diagrams show the relative enthalpy of reactants and products.
断键吸热，成键放热。总焓变可利用键能计算：ΔH = 断裂键能总和 – 形成键能总和。能级图显示了反应物和产物的相对焓值。
A simple calorimetry experiment measures the temperature change of water when a reaction occurs or a substance burns, and the heat energy change can be calculated using: q = m c ΔT, where m is mass of water, c = 4.2 J g-1 °C-1, and ΔT is temperature change.
简单量热实验通过测量反应或物质燃烧时水的温度变化，利用 q = m c ΔT 计算热量变化，其中 m 是水的质量，c = 4.2 J g-1 °C-1，ΔT 是温度变化。
6. Rates of Reaction and Equilibrium | 反应速率与平衡
The rate of a chemical reaction is the speed at which reactants are used up or products are formed. According to collision theory, for a reaction to occur, particles must collide with sufficient energy (activation energy) and correct orientation. Increasing concentration, pressure (for gases), surface area of solids, or temperature increases the rate of reaction by increasing collision frequency or energy.
化学反应速率是反应物消耗或产物生成的快慢。根据碰撞理论，反应发生须粒子碰撞具有足够能量（活化能）且取向正确。增加浓度、气体压力、固体表面积或温度，通过提高碰撞频率或能量来加快反应速率。
Catalysts increase the rate of reaction without being used up by providing an alternative pathway with lower activation energy. Enzymes are biological catalysts.
催化剂降低活化能提供替代路径从而加快反应速率，自身不被消耗。酶是生物催化剂。
Reversible reactions can reach a dynamic equilibrium when the forward and backward rates are equal. Le Chatelier’s principle states that if a condition (concentration, temperature, pressure) is changed, the equilibrium shifts to oppose the change. For the Haber process: N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3, high pressure favours forward reaction; higher temperature favours the endothermic backward reaction but is used as a compromise with rate.
可逆反应当正逆反应速率相等时达动态平衡。勒沙特列原理指出，若改变条件（浓度、温度、压力），平衡向减弱该改变的方向移动。以哈柏法为例：N2 + 3H2 ⇌ 2NH3，高压有利于正向反应；高温有利于吸热的逆反应，但实际使用兼顾速率的温度。
7. Acids, Bases and Salts | 酸、碱与盐
Acids are substances that produce H+ ions in water; common acids include HCl, H2SO4, HNO3. Bases are substances that neutralise acids, and alkalis are soluble bases that release OH– in water (e.g., NaOH, KOH). The pH scale ranges from 0 (strongly acidic) to 14 (strongly alkaline), with 7 being neutral. Universal indicator shows a range of colours.
酸是在水中产生 H+ 的物质；常见酸有 HCl、H2SO4、HNO3。碱是能中和酸的物质，碱是溶于水的碱，在水中释放 OH–（如 NaOH、KOH）。pH 标度从0（强酸性）到14（强碱性），7为中性。通用指示剂呈现一系列颜色。
A salt is formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal or ammonium ion. Soluble salts can be prepared by titrating an acid with an alkali (indicator used, then crystallisation) or by reacting an excess of insoluble solid (metal, metal oxide, carbonate) with acid. Insoluble salts are made by precipitation, mixing two solutions containing the required ions.
盐是酸中氢被金属或铵离子取代的产物。可溶盐可通过酸碱滴定（使用指示剂，然后结晶）或用过量不溶性固体（金属、金属氧化物、碳酸盐）与酸反应制备。不溶盐通过沉淀法制备，混合含有所需离子的两种溶液。
Tests for common gases and ions are essential. The following table summarises key tests:
| Gas / Ion | Test | Observation |
|---|---|---|
| Hydrogen (H2) | Apply a lit splint | Squeaky pop sound |
| Oxygen (O2) | Glowing splint | Relights |
| Carbon dioxide (CO2) | Bubble through limewater | Limewater turns milky/cloudy |
| Chlorine (Cl2) | Damp litmus paper | Bleaches paper white |
| Flame test: Li+, Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cu2+ | Dip clean wire loop in sample and hold in flame | Li: crimson; Na: yellow; K: lilac; Ca: orange-red; Cu: blue-green |
| Cations with NaOH | Add NaOH solution to sample | Many form coloured precipitates: Cu2+ blue, Fe2+ green, Fe3+ brown |
| Halide ions (Cl–, Br–, I–) | Add dilute nitric acid then silver nitrate | Cl– white, Br– cream, I– yellow precipitate |
| Sulfate ions (SO42-) | Add dilute hydrochloric acid then barium chloride | White precipitate |
8. The Periodic Table | 周期表
The modern periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic number. Vertical columns are groups; elements in the same group have the same number of outer electrons and similar chemical properties. Periods are horizontal rows; across a period, metallic character decreases.
现代周期表按原子序数递增排列元素。纵列为族；同族元素最外层电子数相同，化学性质相似。横行为周期；同一周期从左到右金属性减弱。
Group 1: alkali metals (Li, Na, K) are very reactive, have low density, and reactivity increases down the group. Group 7: halogens (F, Cl, Br, I) are diatomic non-metals; reactivity decreases down the group. Halogens react with alkali metals to form salts (e.g., NaCl). Group 0: noble gases are monatomic and unreactive due to a full outer shell of electrons. Transition metals form coloured compounds, have variable oxidation states and act as catalysts.
第1族：碱金属（Li、Na、K）非常活泼，密度低，活泼性依族向下增强。第7族：卤素（F、Cl、Br、I）为双原子非金属；活泼性依族向下减弱。卤素与碱金属反应生成盐（如 NaCl）。第0族：稀有气体为单原子，因最外层电子已满而极不活泼。过渡金属形成有色化合物，具有可变化合价，可作催化剂。
The periodic table can help predict the properties of unknown elements. For example, an element in Group 1 will form a 1+ ion and react vigorously with water, while a Group 7 element will form
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