📚 IGCSE OCR Physics: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | IGCSE OCR 物理：期末复习提纲
This end-of-term revision checklist covers the core topics in the IGCSE OCR Physics specification. Use it to structure your final review, identify weak areas, and practise applying key equations. Read each point carefully and test yourself on definitions, diagrams, and worked examples before the exam.
这份期末复习提纲涵盖了IGCSE OCR物理课程的核心主题。用它来组织你的总复习，发现薄弱环节，并练习应用关键的方程式。在考试前仔细阅读每一条内容，并自测定义、示意图和计算示例。
1. Motion and Forces | 运动与力
Speed, velocity and acceleration are the building blocks of kinematics. Remember that speed is a scalar quantity while velocity is a vector; acceleration is the rate of change of velocity.
速度、速率和加速度是运动学的基础。要记住速率是标量，而速度是矢量；加速度是速度的变化率。
v = s / t, a = (v – u) / t
A distance–time graph shows constant speed as a straight line and stationary objects as a horizontal line; the gradient gives speed. A velocity–time graph shows acceleration as the gradient, distance travelled as the area under the line, and uniform motion as a horizontal line.
距离–时间图中匀速运动是一条斜线，静止是一条水平线；斜率表示速率。速度–时间图中加速度是斜率，位移是线下面积，匀速运动是一条水平线。
Newton’s First Law states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force. The Second Law gives F = m × a, linking force, mass and acceleration. The Third Law reminds us that forces always come in pairs, equal in size and opposite in direction.
牛顿第一定律：物体保持静止或匀速直线运动状态，除非有合力作用于它。第二定律：F = m × a，联系力、质量和加速度。第三定律：力总是成对出现，大小相等方向相反。
Mass is a measure of the amount of matter and is constant, while weight is the gravitational force on that mass and depends on the gravitational field strength g (W = m × g). Know that g on Earth is about 9.8 N/kg.
质量是物体所含物质的多少，是恒量；重量是该质量所受的重力，与重力场强 g 有关（W = m × g）。记住地球表面的 g 约 9.8 N/kg。
Terminal velocity occurs when the drag force on a falling object equals its weight, so the resultant force is zero and the object falls at a constant speed.
当物体下落时所受的阻力等于重力时，合力为零，物体以恒定速度下落，该速度称为终极速度。
2. Energy Resources and Transfer | 能量资源与转移
Energy is the ability to do work, measured in joules (J). The principle of conservation of energy states that energy can be transferred usefully, stored or dissipated, but never created or destroyed.
能量是做功的本领，单位为焦耳 (J)。能量守恒定律指出：能量可以被有效转移、储存或耗散，但不会凭空产生或消失。
W = F × d (when force is in the direction of motion)
Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is given by Ep = m × g × h, and kinetic energy (KE) by Ek = ½ × m × v². In a closed system, GPE lost equals KE gained (ignoring air resistance).
重力势能 (GPE)：Ep = m × g × h；动能 (KE)：Ek = ½ × m × v²。在封闭系统中，减少的重力势能等于增加的动能（忽略空气阻力）。
Energy resources are classified as renewable (solar, wind, wave, tidal, hydroelectric, geothermal, biomass) and non‑renewable (fossil fuels, nuclear). Understand their advantages and disadvantages in terms of availability, environmental impact, and reliability.
能源可分为可再生（太阳能、风能、波浪能、潮汐能、水电、地热、生物质）和不可再生（化石燃料、核能）。要理解它们在可用性、环境影响和可靠性方面的优缺点。
Efficiency is the ratio of useful output energy to total input energy, often expressed as a percentage: Efficiency = (useful energy output / total energy input) × 100%. In Sankey diagrams, the width of the arrows represents the amount of energy; useful energy is shown to the right, wasted energy downwards.
效率是有用输出能与总输入能的比值，通常表示为百分数：效率 = (有用输出能 / 总输入能) × 100%。在Sankey图中，箭头宽度表示能量多少；向右的是有用能，向下的是浪费的能量。
Conduction, convection and radiation are the three methods of thermal energy transfer. Conduction occurs mainly in solids via vibrating particles, convection in fluids by density changes, and radiation as infrared waves that can travel through a vacuum.
导热、对流和辐射是热能传递的三种方式。传导主要发生在固体中，通过粒子振动传递；对流发生在流体中，由密度变化引起；辐射以红外波形式传播，可以在真空中进行。
3. Thermal Physics | 热学
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles in a substance, while heat is the total thermal energy transferred from a hotter body to a cooler one.
温度是物质中粒子平均动能的量度，而热量是从高温物体传递到低温物体的总热能。
The Kelvin scale is the absolute temperature scale; 0 K is absolute zero where particles have minimum possible kinetic energy. To convert between degrees Celsius and Kelvin: K = °C + 273.
开尔文温标是绝对温标；0 K 是绝对零度，此时粒子具有尽可能小的动能。摄氏度与开尔文转换：K = °C + 273。
Specific heat capacity (c) is the energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C. The equation is E = m × c × Δθ. Know how to carry out a practical to determine the specific heat capacity of a metal block using a joulemeter or an ammeter–voltmeter method.
比热容 (c) 是使 1 千克物质温度升高 1 °C 所需的能量。公式为 E = m × c × Δθ。要掌握用焦耳计或安培计–伏特计法测定金属块的比热容的实验方法。
Specific latent heat (L) is the energy needed to change the state of 1 kg of a substance without a change in temperature. Latent heat of fusion is for melting/freezing, and latent heat of vaporisation for boiling/condensing: E = m × L.
比潜热 (L) 是使 1 千克物质改变状态而不改变温度所需的能量。熔化/凝固对应熔化潜热，汽化/液化对应汽化潜热：E = m × L。
During a change of state, the temperature remains constant while the energy goes into breaking bonds, not increasing kinetic energy. Cooling curves show plateaus where latent heat is released.
物态变化过程中，温度保持不变，此时能量用于打破分子间的结合，而不是增加动能。冷却曲线上出现平坦段，那是正在释放潜热。
Pressure in gases is caused by particles colliding with the walls of their container. Increasing temperature at constant volume raises pressure because particles have greater kinetic energy and collide more frequently and with greater force.
气体压强由粒子撞击容器壁产生。在体积不变情况下，升高温度会增加压强，因为粒子动能增大，碰撞更频繁且更有力。
4. Waves | 波
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves (e.g. light, water ripples) have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer; longitudinal waves (e.g. sound) have oscillations parallel to the wave direction.
波传播能量而不传递物质。横波（如光、水波）的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直；纵波（如声波）的振动方向与波传播方向平行。
Key wave quantities: amplitude (maximum displacement from rest), wavelength (distance between two consecutive identical points, e.g. crest to crest), frequency (number of waves per second, measured in hertz), and wave speed v = f × λ.
波的关键物理量：振幅（离开平衡位置的最大位移）、波长（相邻两个相同点间的距离，如波峰到波峰）、频率（每秒波的数目，单位为赫兹）和波速 v = f × λ。
Reflection occurs when a wave bounces off a surface; the angle of incidence equals the angle of reflection. Refraction happens when a wave passes into a different medium and its speed changes, causing a change in direction unless the wave hits the boundary along the normal.
反射：波从表面弹回；入射角等于反射角。折射：波进入不同介质时波速改变，导致方向改变（除非波沿法线入射）。
The electromagnetic spectrum, in order of increasing frequency and decreasing wavelength, is: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X‑rays, gamma rays. All EM waves travel at the same speed in a vacuum, 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s.
电磁波谱按频率递增、波长递减的顺序是：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X射线、伽马射线。所有电磁波在真空中的传播速度相同，均为 3.0 × 10⁸ m/s。
Sound waves are longitudinal and cannot travel through a vacuum. Their speed in air is about 340 m/s. Ultrasound has a frequency above 20 000 Hz and is used for sonar and medical imaging.
声波是纵波，不能在真空中传播。声波在空气中的速度约为 340 m/s。超声波频率高于 20 000 Hz，用于声纳和医学成像。
Be able to describe ripple tank experiments to demonstrate reflection, refraction and diffraction. Draw and interpret wavefront diagrams for each phenomenon.
要能够描述用水波槽演示反射、折射和衍射的实验。能画出并解读每种现象的波前图。
5. Electricity | 电学
Current (I) is the rate of flow of charge, measured in amperes (A). In a metallic conductor, current consists of moving electrons. Charge (Q) is calculated by Q = I × t.
电流 (I) 是电荷流动的速率，单位为安培 (A)。在金属导体中，电流由移动的电子组成。电荷量 (Q) 通过 Q = I × t 计算。
Voltage (potential difference, V) is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = W / Q. Resistance (R, measured in ohms) is defined by R = V / I. Ohm’s Law states that for a resistor at constant temperature, V is directly proportional to I.
电压（电势差，V）是每单位电荷转移的能量：V = W / Q。电阻 (R，单位欧姆) 定义为 R = V / I。欧姆定律指出，在温度不变的条件下，电阻两端的电压与通过它的电流成正比。
A series circuit has a single path; current is the same everywhere, while the supply voltage is shared across components. A parallel circuit has branches; the voltage across each branch equals the supply voltage, while the total current is the sum of branch currents.
串联电路只有一条通路；电流处处相等，而电源电压在元件间分配。并联电路有分支；各支路电压等于电源电压，总电流等于各支路电流之和。
Resistance in a wire depends on length, cross‑sectional area, material and temperature. For a filament lamp, resistance increases as the filament heats up, causing a curved I–V graph. A diode allows current in one direction only; a thermistor’s resistance decreases with temperature, while an LDR’s resistance decreases with light intensity.
导线电阻取决于长度、横截面积、材料和温度。白炽灯的灯丝受热时电阻增加，I–V 图呈曲线。二极管只允许单向导电；热敏电阻的阻值随温度升高而降低，光敏电阻的阻值随光照增强而降低。
Electrical power (P) is the rate of energy transfer: P = I × V and P = I² × R. Energy transferred is E = P × t, often measured in kilowatt‑hours for mains electricity. Practise calculations involving fuses and the equation current = power / voltage.
电功率 (P) 是能量转移的速率：P = I × V 以及 P = I² × R。转移的能量 E = P × t，家庭用电常使用的单位是千瓦时。练习涉及保险丝和电流 = 功率 / 电压的计算。
Always include units in calculations and be careful with prefixes: milli (10⁻³), kilo (10³), mega (10⁶). Use standard form where appropriate.
计算时一定要带上单位，并注意词头：毫 (10⁻³)、千 (10³)、兆 (10⁶)。适当使用科学记数法。
6. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁学与电磁学
Bar magnets have north and south poles; like poles repel, unlike poles attract. A magnetic field is a region where magnetic materials experience a force. Field lines point from north to south.
条形磁铁有北极和南极；同名磁极相斥，异名磁极相吸。磁场是磁性材料受力的区域，磁感线方向由北指向南。
An electric current flowing through a straight wire produces a circular magnetic field around it. The direction of the field can be found using the right‑hand grip rule. A solenoid (coil of wire) produces a strong, uniform magnetic field inside, similar to a bar magnet; its strength can be increased by adding a soft iron core, increasing the current or increasing the number of turns.
电流通过直导线时在导线周围产生环形磁场，磁场方向可用右手握线定则判定。螺线管（导线线圈）内部产生强且均匀的磁场，与条形磁铁相似；加入软铁芯、增大电流或增加匝数均可增强磁场。
An electromagnet is a solenoid with an iron core; it loses its magnetism when the current is switched off. They are used in relays, electric bells, circuit breakers and lifting magnets.
电磁铁是带有铁芯的螺线管；断电后磁性消失。它们用于继电器、电铃、断路器和起重电磁铁。
The motor effect occurs when a current‑carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field; the conductor experiences a force perpendicular to both the field and the current. Fleming’s left‑hand rule predicts the direction of the force. The size of the force is increased by a larger current, stronger magnetic field or longer wire.
放在磁场中的载流导体会受到力的作用，该力垂直于磁场方向和电流方向，这就是电动机效应。用弗莱明左手定则可以判断力的方向。增大电流、增强磁场或增加导线长度都可以增大受力。
A simple d.c. motor uses a coil in a magnetic field, with a split‑ring commutator to reverse the current direction every half turn, ensuring continuous rotation. Be able to explain how the force varies during one rotation.
简单的直流电动机使用磁场中的线圈，并通过换向器每半圈改变电流方向，保证持续转动。要能解释在线圈转动一圈过程中受力如何变化。
Electromagnetic induction happens when there is a change in the magnetic field linking a circuit, which induces a voltage (and possibly a current if the circuit is complete). This is the principle of a generator. The size of the induced voltage depends on the rate of change of the magnetic field and the number of turns in the coil.
电磁感应：当穿过闭合电路的磁场发生变化时，会感生出电压（如果电路闭合则产生电流）。这是发电机的基本原理。感生电压的大小取决于磁场变化的快慢和线圈的匝数。
7. Atomic Physics | 原子物理
Atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by negatively charged electrons in shells. The atom is mostly empty space; almost all the mass is concentrated in the nucleus.
原子由带正电的原子核（含质子和中子）和核外分层排布的带负电的电子组成。原子内部绝大部分是空的，几乎所有质量都集中在原子核上。
Proton number (atomic number) defines the element; nucleon number (mass number) is the total of protons and neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
质子数（原子序数）决定元素的种类；核子数（质量数）等于质子数加中子数。同位素是同种元素中质子数相同而中子数不同的原子。
Radioactivity is the spontaneous decay of unstable nuclei, emitting alpha, beta or gamma radiation. Alpha particles are helium nuclei (strongly ionising, weakly penetrating), beta particles are fast electrons (moderate ionising, moderate penetration), and gamma rays are electromagnetic waves (weakly ionising, very penetrating).
放射性是某些不稳定原子核自发衰变，放出 α 粒子、β 粒子或 γ 射线的现象。α 粒子是氦核（电离能力强，穿透力弱），β 粒子是高速电子（电离能力中等，穿透力中等），γ 射线是电磁波（电离能力弱，穿透力极强）。
The activity of a radioactive sample is the number of decays per second, measured in becquerels (Bq). Half‑life is the time taken for the activity or the number of radioactive nuclei to halve. Understand how to interpret decay curves and calculate half‑life from graphs or numerical data.
放射性活度是每秒钟衰变的次数，单位为贝克勒尔 (Bq)。半衰期是放射性物质的活度或原子核数目减少到一半所需的时间。要会解读衰变曲线并能通过图像或数据计算半衰期。
Background radiation comes from natural sources (cosmic rays, rocks, radon gas) and artificial sources (medical, nuclear waste). Know how to correct experimental readings by subtracting background count.
背景辐射来自天然源（宇宙射线、岩石、氡气）和人工源（医疗、核废料）。要懂得在实验中减去本底计数来进行修正。
Nuclear fission is the splitting of a large nucleus (e.g. uranium‑235) into two smaller daughter nuclei plus neutrons and energy. This is the process used in nuclear power stations. Nuclear fusion is the joining of small nuclei (e.g. hydrogen isotopes) to form a larger nucleus, releasing vast amounts of energy; this powers the Sun.
核裂变是一个大核（如铀-235）分裂成两个较小的子核，并释放出中子和能量。这是核电站使用的过程。核聚变是小核（如氢的同位素）结合成较大核，释放出巨大能量；太阳的能量就来自核聚变。
8. Space Physics | 空间物理
The Earth orbits the Sun, and the Moon orbits the Earth. The force that keeps these bodies in their orbits is gravity. The orbital motion of planets, moons and artificial satellites is a balance between gravitational pull and the object’s tangential velocity.
地球绕太阳运行，月球绕地球运行。维持这些天体沿轨道运动的力是万有引力。行星、卫星和人造卫星的轨道运动是引力与天体切向速度之间的平衡。
Our Solar System consists of the Sun, the eight planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune), their moons, dwarf planets, asteroids and comets. The Sun is a medium‑sized star that generates energy by nuclear fusion of hydrogen into helium.
太阳系由太阳、八大行星（水星、金星、地球、火星、木星、土星、天王星、海王星）、它们的卫星、矮行星、小行星和彗星组成。太阳是一颗中等大小的恒星，通过氢聚变为氦的核聚变产生能量。
The life cycle of a star depends on its mass. A star like the Sun forms from a nebula, becomes a main sequence star, expands into a red giant and finally sheds its outer layers to form a planetary nebula, leaving behind a white dwarf. A more massive star becomes a red supergiant, then explodes as a supernova, leaving either a neutron star or a black hole.
恒星的演化取决于它的质量。像太阳这样的恒星从星云中形成，进入主序星阶段，然后膨胀为红巨星，最后抛射外层形成行星状星云，留下白矮星。质量更大的恒星会演化为红超巨星，然后爆发为超新星，最终留下中子星或黑洞。
The Universe is all of space, time, matter and energy. Evidence that the Universe is expanding comes from the redshift observed in light from distant galaxies. The greater the redshift, the faster a galaxy is moving away, which supports the Big Bang theory.
宇宙是所有空间、时间、物质和能量的总称。宇宙正在膨胀的证据来自遥远星系光谱中的红移现象。红移越大，星系远离的速度越快，这支持了大爆炸理论。
Cepheid variable stars have a consistent relationship between their period of brightness variation and their luminosity, making them useful standard candles for measuring distances in space.
造父变星的光变周期与其光度之间有稳定的关系，使它们成为有用的标准烛光，用于测量宇宙中的距离。
Cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR) is the remnant heat from the Big Bang that fills the Universe almost uniformly. Its existence is powerful evidence for the Big Bang model.
宇宙微波背景辐射 (CMBR) 是大爆炸遗留下的热辐射，均匀地充满宇宙。它的存在是支持大爆炸模型的有力证据。
9. Practical Skills and Data Analysis | 实验技能与数据分析
Be prepared to describe experiments in detail, including the apparatus set‑up, the variables to control, the method of data collection and any safety precautions. Common practicals include: measuring speed using light gates, determining the specific heat capacity of a solid, investigating resistance with a voltmeter and ammeter, and measuring the half‑life of a radioactive sample using a Geiger–Müller tube.
准备好详细描述实验，包括仪器装置、需要控制的变量、数据采集方法以及安全注意事项。常见实验有：用光门测速度、测定固体比热容、用伏特计和安培计探究电阻、用盖革–米勒管测量放射性样品的半衰期。
When plotting graphs, always label axes with quantity and unit, choose a suitable scale, and draw a best‑fit line (not dot‑to‑dot). The gradient of a straight‑line graph often represents a physical constant; calculate it using a large triangle. Be able to identify direct proportionality (straight line through the origin) and interpret the area under a curve.
绘制图线时，必须标明坐标轴上的物理量和单位，选择合适的刻度，并画出最佳拟合线（不要逐点连线）。直线图的斜率通常代表一个物理常数；计算时要使用一个大三角形。要能够判断正比关系（过原点的直线），并能解读曲线下的面积。
Precision and accuracy are not the same. A result can be precise but not accurate if there is a systematic error. Random errors can be reduced by taking repeated readings and calculating a mean. Understand how to deal with anomalous points and to estimate uncertainties.
精密度和准确度是不同的概念。如果存在系统误差，结果可能精确但不准确。通过重复读数并计算平均值可以减小随机误差。要懂得如何处理异常点并估算不确定度。
Communication of scientific ideas involves using correct units, standard form and appropriate significant figures. When comparing results, always refer back to the original hypothesis and use the data to support your conclusion.
表达科学观点时要使用正确的单位、标准形式和适当的有效数字。在比较结果时，一定要结合最初的假设，并运用数据来支撑你的结论。
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