📚 Trade Unions | 工会
A trade union is an organisation of workers that aims to protect and advance their members’ interests. Unions are a fundamental part of labour markets in many economies, giving workers a collective voice when negotiating with employers. In IGCSE Economics, we examine how unions form, the different types they take, their methods for raising wages, and their broader economic effects.
工会是旨在保护和促进其成员利益的工人组织。工会在许多经济体中是劳动力市场的基本组成部分，能够为工人与雇主谈判时提供集体发声的机会。在IGCSE经济学中，我们会学习工会的形成方式、不同类型、提高工资的方法以及它们对经济的广泛影响。
1. What Are Trade Unions? | 什么是工会？
A trade union is an association of workers formed to protect and promote the interests of its members. It acts as a collective group, or a ‘single seller’ of labour, to strengthen bargaining power against employers.
工会是工人为保护和促进其成员利益而组成的协会。它作为一个集体，或’单一的劳动卖方’，来增强与雇主谈判时的议价能力。
Trade unions not only negotiate pay but also campaign for better working conditions, job security, and benefits such as pensions and sick pay. Many also provide legal advice, training opportunities, and support during disputes.
工会不仅就工资进行谈判，还会为改善工作条件、保障就业安全以及争取养老金和病假工资等福利而努力。许多工会还提供法律咨询、培训机会以及在争议期间的支持。
2. Types of Trade Unions | 工会的类型
Craft unions represent workers with a particular skill or trade, such as electricians or plumbers. Membership is often restricted to those who have completed a recognised apprenticeship.
行业工会代表具有特定技能或手艺的工人，例如电工或水管工。会员资格通常限于完成了公认学徒期的人。
General unions accept workers from a wide range of occupations and industries. Industrial unions represent all workers in a specific industry, such as mining or transport, regardless of their job role. White-collar unions represent professional, administrative, and clerical workers.
一般工会接受来自多种职业和行业的工人。产业工会代表某一特定行业（如采矿或运输）中的所有工人，不分具体职位。白领工会则代表专业、行政和文职工人。
3. Collective Bargaining | 集体谈判
Collective bargaining is the process by which trade union representatives negotiate with employers on behalf of the workforce. It typically covers wages, working hours, holiday entitlement, and health and safety standards.
集体谈判是工会代表代表全体员工与雇主进行谈判的过程。它通常涉及工资、工时、假期权利以及健康与安全标准等内容。
The bargaining power of a union depends on several factors, including membership density, the profitability of the firm, the ease with which workers can be replaced, and the legal framework governing industrial action.
工会的谈判能力取决于若干因素，包括会员密度、企业的盈利能力、工人被替代的难易程度，以及规范罢工行为的法律框架。
4. How Trade Unions Can Increase Wages | 工会如何提高工资
Trade unions can push wages above the competitive equilibrium level by restricting the supply of labour, for example, through closed shops, lengthy training requirements, or licensing. They can also threaten industrial action, such as strikes or work-to-rule, to force employers to meet their pay demands.
工会可以通过限制劳动力供给来将工资推高至竞争性均衡水平以上，例如通过排外性雇佣制企业、漫长的培训要求或许可证制度。它们还可以以罢工或按章工作等威胁，迫使雇主满足加薪要求。
In a perfectly competitive labour market, a union-negotiated wage above the equilibrium creates an excess supply of labour, leading to unemployment. However, if the employer is a monopsonist, a trade union counterbalancing that power can actually increase both wages and employment.
在完全竞争的劳动力市场中，工会谈定的高于均衡水平的工资会造成劳动力供给过剩，从而导致失业。然而，如果雇主是买方垄断者，工会平衡这种势力反而可能同时提高工资和就业。
5. Union Wage Bargaining in a Labour Market Diagram | 工会工资议价的劳动力市场图示
In a standard labour market diagram, the demand for labour (D) slopes downward because of the law of diminishing marginal returns. The supply of labour (S) slopes upward. The equilibrium wage is We and the equilibrium quantity of labour is Qe.
在标准的劳动力市场图中，劳动力需求曲线（D）因边际收益递减规律而向下倾斜。劳动力供给曲线（S）向上倾斜。均衡工资为We，均衡就业量为Qe。
If a union successfully bargains for a wage Wu, set above We, the quantity of labour supplied (Qs) will exceed the quantity demanded (Qd). This difference, Qs – Qd, represents the number of workers who would like to work at the higher wage but cannot find employment.
如果工会成功谈判到高于We的工资Wu，劳动力供给量（Qs）将超过需求量（Qd）。这段差距Qs – Qd代表着那些希望以更高工资工作却无法找到工作的工人数量。
6. Effects of Trade Unions on Employment | 工会对就业的影响
In a competitive labour market, union wage increases often lead to a reduction in the number of workers employed, as firms cut costs. However, the employment effect depends on the elasticity of demand for labour.
在竞争性劳动力市场中，工会引起的工资上涨往往导致雇主减少雇佣人数，因为企业会削减成本。然而，就业效应取决于劳动力需求弹性。
If labour demand is inelastic because workers are highly skilled or difficult to replace, the employment loss from a wage rise will be smaller. Additionally, if unions cooperate with management to improve productivity, higher pay may not reduce jobs at all.
如果劳动力需求因工人高技能或难以替代而缺乏弹性，工资上涨导致的就业损失就较小。此外，如果工会与管理层合作提高生产率，更高的工资甚至可能丝毫不减少工作岗位。
7. The Closed Shop and Its Impact | 排外性雇佣制企业及其影响
A closed shop is a workplace where all employees must be members of a trade union before they can be hired. This arrangement gives unions enormous bargaining power because they control labour supply completely.
排外性雇佣制企业是指所有员工在受雇前都必须成为工会会员的工作场所。这种安排赋予了工会巨大的谈判能力，因为它们完全控制了劳动力的供给。
However, closed shops can reduce labour market flexibility and discriminate against non-union workers. In the UK, closed shops were largely made illegal by the Employment Acts of the 1980s and 1990s.
然而，排外性雇佣制企业可能降低劳动力市场的灵活性，并歧视非工会工人。在英国，20世纪80年代和90年代的就业法案已基本将排外性雇佣制企业定为非法。
8. Advantages of Trade Unions | 工会的优势
Trade unions protect workers from exploitation by providing a collective voice and negotiating for fair pay and safe working conditions. They can also secure non-wage benefits such as pensions, sick pay, and holiday entitlements.
工会通过提供集体发声机会和谈判公平工资与安全工作条件，保护工人免受剥削。它们还能争取到养老金、病假工资和假期权利等非工资福利。
Unions often invest in training and skills development, which raises productivity. They can also improve communication between workers and management, reducing conflict and building trust within firms.
工会常投资于培训和技能发展，从而提高生产率。它们还能改善工人与管理层之间的沟通，减少冲突，在企业内部建立信任。
9. Disadvantages of Trade Unions | 工会的劣势
By pushing wages above the market-clearing level, unions can cause real-wage unemployment. Workers who would be willing to work at the lower equilibrium wage may find themselves priced out of jobs.
通过将工资推高至市场出清水平以上，工会可能导致真实工资失业。那些愿意以较低的均衡工资工作的工人可能会发现自己因工资过高而失去就业机会。
Strikes and other industrial action can disrupt production, leading to lost output and revenue. High union wages may raise business costs, which could be passed on to consumers as higher prices or lead to lower profits and investment.
罢工及其他工业行动会扰乱生产，导致产出和收入损失。高额的工会工资可能推高企业成本，这些成本可能以更高价格转嫁给消费者，或导致利润下降和投资减少。
10. Trade Unions and Productivity | 工会与生产力
Unions can have a positive effect on productivity when they encourage workers to acquire new skills and support the introduction of efficient work practices. A motivated and well-represented workforce is often more cooperative and innovative.
当工会鼓励工人学习新技能并支持采用高效工作方法时，它们会对生产率产生积极影响。一个积极性高且被充分代表的员工队伍往往更具合作精神和创新能力。
On the other hand, unions may engage in restrictive practices, such as insisting on minimum manning levels, resisting new technology, or opposing flexible working arrangements. These practices can lower efficiency and hinder competitiveness.
另一方面，工会可能会采取限制性做法，例如坚持最低人员配置水平、抵制新技术或反对弹性工作安排。这些做法会降低效率并阻碍竞争力。
11. Government Policies and Trade Unions | 政府政策与工会
Governments can influence the power of trade unions through legislation. Laws may require secret ballots before strikes, outlaw secondary picketing, or ban closed shops, all of which reduce union leverage.
政府可以通过立法影响工会力量。法律可能要求在罢工前进行无记名投票、禁止次级纠察或取缔排外性雇佣制企业，这些都会削弱工会的筹码。
National minimum wage legislation can reduce the need for unions to bargain over basic pay, while changes to employment tribunals and union recognition rules can affect membership numbers. The balance of policy can shape the entire labour relations climate.
全国最低工资立法可以减少工会就基本工资进行谈判的必要性，而就业法庭和工会认可规则的变化则能影响会员数量。政策的平衡可以塑造整个劳动关系环境。
12. Evaluating Trade Unions in the Real World | 现实世界中评估工会
The economic impact of trade unions is not uniform; it varies across industries, countries, and time periods. In sectors with rapid technological change, unions and firms that work together often achieve both high wages and strong productivity growth.
工会的经济影响并非一成不变；它因行业、国家和时期而异。在技术快速变革的行业，工会与企业通力合作往往能同时实现高工资和强劲的生产率增长。
In some cases, union presence has declined alongside falling manufacturing employment, while in public services unions remain influential. The net effect of unions depends on the legal environment, the structure of the economy, and the ability of both sides to negotiate constructively.
在某些情况下，工会势力随着制造业就业下降而衰退，而在公共服务部门工会依然举足轻重。工会的净效应取决于法律环境、经济结构以及劳资双方进行建设性谈判的能力。
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