📚 GCSE AQA Biology: End-of-Year Revision Checklist | GCSE AQA 生物：期末复习提纲
This checklist highlights the essential knowledge and skills you must master for the GCSE AQA Biology exams. Use it to track your revision, focusing on key concepts, practical work, and required equations. By ticking off each item, you can approach the final exam with confidence.
本提纲涵盖 GCSE AQA 生物考试必须掌握的核心知识点与技能，帮助你追踪复习进度，抓住关键概念、实验操作和必备方程式。逐一核对后，你将更从容地面对期末考试。
1. Cell Structure and Transport | 细胞结构及运输
Distinguish between prokaryotic cells (bacteria) and eukaryotic cells (animals, plants, fungi). Prokaryotes lack a nucleus, have a single loop of DNA, and may contain small rings of DNA called plasmids.
区分原核细胞（细菌）和真核细胞（动物、植物、真菌）。原核细胞没有细胞核，含有一条环状 DNA，并可能含有称为质粒的小环形 DNA。
Know the functions of sub-cellular structures: nucleus (controls cell activities), cytoplasm (site of chemical reactions), cell membrane (controls entry and exit), mitochondria (aerobic respiration), ribosomes (protein synthesis), and in plants, chloroplasts (photosynthesis) and permanent vacuole (supports cell).
掌握亚细胞结构的功能：细胞核（控制细胞活动）、细胞质（化学反应场所）、细胞膜（控制物质进出）、线粒体（有氧呼吸）、核糖体（蛋白质合成），以及植物特有的叶绿体（光合作用）和永久液泡（支撑细胞）。
Explain how diffusion, osmosis, and active transport move substances across membranes. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from high to low concentration; osmosis is the diffusion of water through a partially permeable membrane; active transport moves substances against the concentration gradient using energy from respiration.
解释扩散、渗透和主动运输如何使物质穿过细胞膜。扩散是粒子从高浓度区域向低浓度区域的净移动；渗透是水通过半透膜的扩散；主动运输利用呼吸作用提供的能量逆浓度梯度移动物质。
Calculate and interpret surface area to volume ratios (SA:V) for cubes and spheres. Use the relationship that a larger SA:V increases the rate of diffusion, explaining why cells remain small or have specialised shapes.
计算并解释立方体和球体的表面积与体积比（SA:V）。运用“较大的 SA:V 会加快扩散速率”这一规律，解释细胞为何保持微小或具有特化形态。
Describe examples of specialised animal and plant cells — e.g. sperm (tail, many mitochondria), neurone (long axon, dendrites), root hair cell (large surface area), xylem vessel (lignified walls, no end walls).
描述特化动植物细胞的例子：精子（鞭毛、大量线粒体）、神经元（长轴突、树突）、根毛细胞（大面积）、木质部导管（木质化壁、无端壁）。
2. Cell Division and Stem Cells | 细胞分裂与干细胞
Understand that mitosis produces two genetically identical daughter cells, essential for growth, repair, and asexual reproduction. Know the stages of the cell cycle: DNA replication, chromosome alignment, separation of chromatids, and division of cytoplasm.
理解有丝分裂产生两个遗传相同的子细胞，这对生长、修复和无性繁殖至关重要。掌握细胞周期的阶段：DNA 复制、染色体排列、染色单体分离和细胞质分裂。
Explain the role of stem cells in embryos and adults. Embryonic stem cells can differentiate into any cell type, while adult stem cells (e.g. in bone marrow) can only form a limited range of cells. Discuss therapeutic cloning and challenges of stem cell use.
解释胚胎干细胞和成体干细胞的作用。胚胎干细胞能分化成任何类型的细胞，而成体干细胞（如骨髓中的）只能形成有限种类的细胞。讨论治疗性克隆及干细胞应用的挑战。
Link uncontrolled mitosis to cancer. Benign tumours grow in one place, whereas malignant tumours invade neighbouring tissues and can spread to form secondary tumours via the blood.
将失控的有丝分裂与癌症联系起来。良性肿瘤在原位生长，而恶性肿瘤侵染邻近组织，并可通过血液扩散形成继发性肿瘤。
Appreciate that plant meristems also contain stem cells and allow plants to grow throughout their lives. These can be used to clone plants rapidly for agriculture and conservation.
认识到植物分生组织也含有干细胞，使植物终生都能生长。这些干细胞可用于快速克隆植物，服务于农业和保护目的。
3. Organisation: Digestive and Circulatory Systems | 组织：消化与循环系统
Outline the hierarchy of organisation: cells → tissues → organs → organ systems. Give examples such as muscle tissue, stomach, and digestive system.
概述组织的层级：细胞 → 组织 → 器官 → 器官系统。举例说明，如肌肉组织、胃和消化系统。
Label and describe the roles of digestive organs: mouth (mechanical and chemical digestion), stomach (acid and proteases), small intestine (digestion and absorption), large intestine (water absorption), and associated glands (salivary glands, pancreas, liver).
标注并描述消化器官的作用：口腔（机械和化学消化）、胃（胃酸和蛋白酶）、小肠（消化与吸收）、大肠（吸收水分），及相关腺体（唾液腺、胰腺、肝脏）。
Explain how enzymes catalyse digestion. Know the substrates, products, and sites of action for amylase (starch → maltose), proteases (proteins → amino acids), and lipases (lipids → fatty acids + glycerol). Include the role of bile in emulsifying fats and neutralising stomach acid.
解释酶如何催化消化。掌握淀粉酶（淀粉 → 麦芽糖）、蛋白酶（蛋白质 → 氨基酸）和脂肪酶（脂质 → 脂肪酸 + 甘油）的底物、产物及作用部位。包括胆汁乳化脂肪和中和胃酸的作用。
Describe the structure of arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries have thick muscular walls, veins contain valves to prevent backflow, and capillaries are one cell thick for efficient exchange. Explain double circulation (pulmonary and systemic).
描述动脉、静脉和毛细血管的结构。动脉壁厚且有肌肉层，静脉含有防止回流的瓣膜，毛细血管壁仅一个细胞厚度以利物质交换。解释双循环（肺循环和体循环）。
Calculate cardiac output (heart rate × stroke volume) and interpret data on heart rate responses to exercise. Understand that the heart acts as a pump, with chambers and valves ensuring unidirectional flow.
计算心输出量（心率 × 每搏输出量），并解读运动时心率变化的数据。理解心脏作为泵的作用，心腔和瓣膜确保血流单向流动。
4. Plant Organisation and Transpiration | 植物组织与蒸腾作用
Identify tissues in a leaf: upper epidermis (transparent), palisade mesophyll (many chloroplasts), spongy mesophyll (air spaces for diffusion), and guard cells controlling stomata.
辨认叶片中的组织：上表皮（透明）、栅栏组织（含大量叶绿体）、海绵组织（气腔利于扩散）和保卫细胞（控制气孔）。
Explain how xylem transports water and mineral ions from roots to leaves. Xylem vessels are made of dead, lignified cells that form continuous tubes. The cohesion-tension theory and transpiration pull drive water movement.
解释木质部如何将水分和矿物质离子从根输送到叶。木质部导管由死细胞组成，细胞壁木质化并形成连续管道。内聚力和蒸腾拉力驱动水分移动。
Describe the role of phloem in translocation — moving dissolved sugars (mainly sucrose) from sources (leaves) to sinks (growing regions, storage organs) using energy. This is an active process.
描述韧皮部在输导作用——利用能量将溶解的糖（主要为蔗糖）从源（叶片）运到库（生长部位、储存器官）。这是一个主动过程。
Measure and calculate the rate of transpiration using a potometer. Explain how environmental factors (light intensity, temperature, humidity, wind) affect transpiration rate via changes in evaporation and diffusion.
用蒸腾计测定并计算蒸腾速率。解释环境因素（光强、温度、湿度、风）如何通过影响蒸发和扩散而改变蒸腾速率。
5. Infection and Response: Pathogens and Immune System | 感染与反应：病原体和免疫系统
Define pathogens as microorganisms that cause disease — include viruses, bacteria, fungi, and protists. Give examples: measles (virus), Salmonella (bacteria), rose black spot (fungus), malaria (protist).
定义病原体为引起疾病的微生物，包括病毒、细菌、真菌和原生生物。举例：麻疹（病毒）、沙门氏菌（细菌）、黑斑病（真菌）、疟疾（原生生物）。
Explain how pathogens are spread (airborne, direct contact, contaminated food/water, vectors) and how hygiene, isolation, vaccination, and vector control prevent spread.
解释病原体如何传播（空气、直接接触、污染食物/水、媒介），以及卫生、隔离、疫苗接种和媒介控制如何阻止传播。
Describe the non-specific defence systems: skin as a barrier, nasal hairs and mucus, cilia in airways, stomach acid. The immune system’s specific response involves white blood cells engulfing pathogens, producing antibodies, and releasing antitoxins.
描述非特异性防御系统：皮肤屏障、鼻毛和黏液、气道纤毛、胃酸。免疫系统的特异性反应包括白细胞吞噬病原体、产生抗体和释放抗毒素。
Explain how vaccination works: introducing a harmless pathogen antigen triggers antibody production and memory cells, so that a real infection can be overcome quickly. Evaluate herd immunity and the importance of continued vaccination.
解释疫苗工作原理：引入无害的病原体抗原则刺激抗体产生和记忆细胞，使真实感染时能迅速被克服。评价群体免疫及持续接种疫苗的重要性。
Discuss the discovery and use of antibiotics (e.g. penicillin) and antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Emphasise that antibiotics kill bacteria but not viruses, and that misuse leads to resistant strains. Describe aseptic techniques in required practicals.
讨论抗生素（如青霉素）的发现和使用，以及抗生素耐药细菌。强调抗生素能杀死细菌但不能杀死病毒，误用会导致耐药菌株。描述规定实验中的无菌操作技术。
6. Bioenergetics: Photosynthesis and Respiration | 生物能学：光合作用与呼吸
State the word and balanced symbol equation for photosynthesis:
6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂
Recall that photosynthesis is endothermic and takes place in chloroplasts using light energy.
陈述光合作用的文字和配平符号方程式：6CO₂ + 6H₂O → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂。记住光合作用是吸热反应，在叶绿体中进行，利用光能。
Investigate how light intensity, carbon dioxide concentration, and temperature affect the rate of photosynthesis. Interpret graphs with limiting factors and optima. Decide how to measure rates using oxygen production or pondweed practical.
探究光强、二氧化碳浓度和温度如何影响光合作用速率。解读包含限制因子和最佳值的曲线图。学会通过产氧量或用黑藻实验测量速率。
Describe aerobic respiration, giving the balanced symbol equation:
C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + energy (ATP)
描述有氧呼吸，给出配平符号方程式：C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ → 6CO₂ + 6H₂O + 能量（ATP）
Outline anaerobic respiration in muscles (glucose → lactic acid) and in yeast (glucose → ethanol + carbon dioxide). Know that anaerobic respiration produces less energy and leads to oxygen debt in humans.
概述肌肉中的无氧呼吸（葡萄糖 → 乳酸）和酵母中的发酵（葡萄糖 → 乙醇 + 二氧化碳）。理解无氧呼吸产能较少，并导致人体氧债。
Discuss metabolic reactions involving the use of energy: muscle contraction, active transport, synthesis of large molecules, maintenance of body temperature. Recognise that all respiration is catalysed by enzymes.
讨论涉及能量利用的代谢反应：肌肉收缩、主动运输、大分子合成、维持体温。认识到所有呼吸作用均由酶催化。
7. Homeostasis and the Nervous System | 稳态与神经系统
Define homeostasis as the regulation of internal conditions to maintain a stable environment in response to changes. Key internal conditions include body temperature, blood glucose concentration, and water levels.
定义稳态为调节内部条件以应对变化、维持稳定环境。关键内部条件包括体温、血糖浓度和水分水平。
Describe the components of a reflex arc: stimulus → receptor → sensory neurone → relay neurone (CNS) → motor neurone → effector (muscle or gland). Differences between conscious and reflex actions.
描述反射弧的组成：刺激 → 感受器 → 感觉神经元 → 中继神经元（中枢神经系统） → 运动神经元 → 效应器（肌肉或腺体）。区分有意识行为和反射行为。
Explain the role of synapses in transmitting nerve impulses chemically. Neurotransmitters diffuse across the gap and bind to receptors on the next neurone, ensuring unidirectional transmission.
解释突触在化学传递神经冲动中的作用。神经递质扩散跨过间隙并与下一神经元受体结合，确保单向传递。
Outline how the brain controls complex behaviours (cerebral cortex, cerebellum, medulla) and how scientists study the brain (MRI scans, studying patients with brain damage, electrical stimulation). Mention the difficulty of treating brain diseases.
简述大脑如何控制复杂行为（大脑皮层、小脑、延髓），以及科学家如何研究大脑（MRI扫描、研究脑损伤患者、电刺激）。提及治疗脑部疾病的困难。
Relate eye structure to function: accommodation (ciliary muscles and suspensory ligaments change lens shape), defects (myopia and hyperopia) and how convex/concave lenses correct them. Use ray diagrams.
将眼的结构与功能联系起来：调节（睫状肌和悬韧带改变晶状体形状）、视觉缺陷（近视和远视）以及凸透镜/凹透镜如何矫正。使用光线图。
8. Hormonal Coordination | 激素协调
Compare nervous and hormonal communication: nervous impulses are fast, short-lived, and electrical; hormones are slower, travel in the blood, and have longer-lasting effects on target organs.
比较神经和激素通信：神经冲动快速、短暂、电信号；激素较慢，随血液运输，对靶器官作用更持久。
Explain blood glucose regulation by insulin and glucagon. When glucose is high, pancreas releases insulin to convert glucose to glycogen in liver/muscle; when low, glucagon converts glycogen back to glucose. Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.
解释胰岛素和胰高血糖素对血糖的调节。血糖高时，胰腺分泌胰岛素促使葡萄糖在肝/肌肉转化为糖原；血糖低时，胰高血糖素将糖原转化为葡萄糖。1型和2型糖尿病。
Describe the roles of adrenaline and thyroxine. Adrenaline prepares the body for fight or flight (increased heart rate, blood flow to muscles). Thyroxine controls metabolic rate via negative feedback involving the pituitary gland.
描述肾上腺素和甲状腺素的作用。肾上腺素为“战斗或逃跑”做准备（心率加快、肌肉血流增加）。甲状腺素通过涉及垂体的负反馈控制代谢速率。
Reproduction hormones: know the role of testosterone (male puberty), oestrogen and progesterone in the menstrual cycle. Explain the interaction of FSH, LH, oestrogen and progesterone in the cycle; describe contraception methods and fertility treatments like IVF.
生殖激素：了解睾酮（男性青春期）、雌激素和孕激素在月经周期中的作用。解释FSH、LH、雌激素和孕激素在周期中的相互作用；描述避孕方法和IVF等生育治疗。
Plant hormones (auxins): describe phototropism and gravitropism. Unilateral light causes unequal auxin distribution, resulting in bending towards light. Use practical investigations with seedlings to demonstrate tropisms.
植物激素（生长素）：描述向光性和向地性。单侧光照导致生长素分布不均，使植物向光弯曲。用幼苗实验验证向性运动。
9. Reproduction and Inheritance | 繁殖与遗传
Distinguish between sexual reproduction (fusion of gametes, genetic variation) and asexual reproduction (one parent, genetically identical clones, mitosis). Explain advantages of each in context (e.g. disease resistance vs. rapid colonisation).
区分有性繁殖（配子融合、遗传变异）和无性繁殖（单一亲本、遗传相同的克隆、有丝分裂）。解释每种方式在情境中的优势（如抗病性 vs. 快速占据环境）。
Describe meiosis: two divisions producing four non-identical haploid gametes, each with half the chromosome number. Random assortment of chromosomes leads to variation.
描述减数分裂：两次分裂产生四个遗传不同的单倍体配子，染色体数目减半。染色体的随机分配导致变异。
Use genetic diagrams and Punnett squares to predict outcomes in monohybrid crosses. Understand the terms: gene, allele, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype. Predict ratios for single-gene traits.
运用遗传图解和庞纳特方格预测单基因杂交结果。理解术语：基因、等位基因、显性、隐性、纯合、杂合、基因型、表型。预测单基因性状的比例。
Explain inherited disorders such as polydactyly (dominant) and cystic fibrosis (recessive). Use family pedigrees to deduce genotypes and the probability of passing on disorders. Discuss embryo screening for genetic diseases.
解释遗传病如多指（显性）和囊性纤维化（隐性）。利用家族系谱推断基因型和遗传病传递的概率。讨论针对遗传病的胚胎筛查。
Describe the structure of DNA as a double helix polymer of four nucleotides (A, T, C, G). Mutations change the base sequence and can alter protein synthesis. The Human Genome Project’s importance in medicine.
描述DNA结构：由四种核苷酸（A、T、C、G）构成的双螺旋聚合物。突变会改变碱基序列，可能影响蛋白质合成。人类基因组计划在医学上的重要意义。
10. Variation, Evolution and Genetic Engineering | 变异、进化与遗传工程
Explain that variation arises from both genetic causes (mutations, sexual reproduction, recombination) and environmental causes (nutrition, temperature). Most mutations have no effect, but some can be harmful or beneficial.
解释变异来源于遗传因素（突变、有性繁殖、重组）和环境因素（营养、温度）。大多数突变没有影响，但有些可能有害或有益。
Describe natural selection: organisms with advantageous characteristics are more likely to survive, reproduce, and pass on those alleles. Over time this leads to evolution. Use example of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
描述自然选择：具有有利特征的个体更可能存活、繁殖并传递等位基因。久而久之导致进化。以抗生素耐药菌为例说明。
Outline selective breeding: humans choose parents with desirable traits to produce offspring with preferred characteristics, reducing genetic diversity. Give examples in agriculture and dogs.
概述选育：人类选择具有理想性状的亲本繁殖，以获得所需特征的后代，同时减少遗传多样性。举农业和犬类例子。
Explain the steps in genetic engineering: extracting a gene of interest (using restriction enzymes), inserting it into a vector (plasmid or virus), introducing into target cells to produce a desired product (e.g. human insulin). Discuss GM crops and the controversy.
解释遗传工程的步骤：提取目的基因（用限制酶），插入载体（质粒或病毒），导入目标细胞以生产所需产物（如人胰岛素）。讨论转基因作物及争议。
Understand the theory of evolution by natural selection and evidence: fossils, antibiotic resistance, and DNA comparisons. Explain how speciation occurs through isolation and differential selection.
理解自然选择进化论及证据：化石、抗生素耐药、DNA比较。解释隔离和差异性选择如何导致物种形成。
11. Ecology: Adaptations and Cycles | 生态学：适应性与循环
Define key terms: ecosystem, community, population, habitat, biotic and abiotic factors. Explain competition for resources and interdependence of organisms within a community.
定义关键术语：生态系统、群落、种群、栖息地、生物和非生物因素。解释资源竞争以及群落内生物的相互依赖。
Describe structural, behavioural, and functional adaptations of organisms. Examples: camel’s hump (fat store), arctic fox thick fur (insulation), cacti reduced leaves (water conservation). Explain how adaptations increase survival.
描述生物的结构、行为和功能适应。例：骆驼驼峰（脂肪储存）、北极狐厚毛（保温）、仙人掌叶片减少（保水）。解释适应如何提高生存率。
Illustrate the cycling of materials with the carbon cycle (photosynthesis, respiration, combustion, decomposition, fossilisation) and the water cycle (evaporation, transpiration, condensation, precipitation). Use diagrams.
以碳循环（光合作用、呼吸作用、燃烧、分解、化石形成）和水循环（蒸发、蒸腾、凝结、降水）说明物质循环。使用图示。
Explain the role of decomposers (bacteria and fungi) in recycling nutrients. They secrete enzymes that break down dead matter, returning mineral ions to soil. Investigate decay rates with different conditions in required practicals.
解释分解者（细菌和真菌）在营养物质循环中的作用。它们分泌酶分解死物，将矿物质离子归还土壤。在必修实验中探究不同条件下的衰变速率。
Interpret pyramids of biomass and describe energy transfer through trophic levels. Only about 10% of energy is transferred from one level to the next; the rest is lost through movement, heat, and waste.
解释生物量金字塔并描述营养级间的能量传递。仅约10%的能量从一级传递到下一级；其余通过运动、热和废物而散失。
12. Biodiversity and Human Impact | 生物多样性与人类影响
Define biodiversity as the variety of all living organisms and their habitats. Maintaining biodiversity ensures ecosystem stability and resources for human needs.
定义生物多样性为所有生物及其栖息地的多样性。保护生物多样性确保生态系统稳定和人类所需的资源。
Describe human activities that reduce biodiversity: deforestation, land use change, pollution (air, water, land), overfishing, and global warming. Explain consequences such as loss of habitats, acid rain, and climate change.
描述降低生物多样性的人类活动：森林砍伐、土地用途转变、污染（空气、水、土地）、过度捕捞和全球变暖。解释其后果，如栖息地丧失、酸雨和气候变化。
Review programmes to protect biodiversity: breeding programmes for endangered species, regeneration of habitats, reintroduction of field margins and hedgerows, limiting deforestation, and sustainable fishing quotas.
回顾保护生物多样性的计划：濒危物种育种计划、栖息地恢复、重建田边和篱笆、限制森林砍伐和可持续捕捞配额。
Explain the importance of trophic levels and how bioaccumulation of toxins (e.g. insecticides) occurs in food chains, concentrating poisons in top predators. Outline indicator species for pollution (lichens for air quality, invertebrate species for water quality).
解释营养级的重要性以及毒素（如杀虫剂）如何在食物链中生物累积，富集在顶级捕食者体内。概述污染指示物种（地衣指示空气质量，无脊椎动物指示水质）。
Relate the greenhouse effect to global warming: increased carbon dioxide and methane trap heat, leading to rising temperatures, melting ice caps, and sea level change. Discuss the need to reduce emissions and rely on renewable energy.
将温室效应与全球变暖联系起来：二氧化碳和甲烷增加会截留热量，导致气温上升、冰盖融化和海平面变化。讨论减少排放和依赖可再生能源的必要性。
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