📚 GCSE CIE Physics: End-of-Term Revision Checklist | GCSE CIE 物理：期末复习提纲
As your end-of-term exam approaches, a structured revision checklist can help you focus on the essential topics in the CIE GCSE Physics syllabus. This guide highlights the key ideas and definitions you must know, presented in a bilingual format to support your learning. Use it to track your confidence level and identify areas that need more practice.
随着期末考试临近，一份系统的复习提纲能帮助你聚焦 CIE GCSE 物理的核心内容。这份指南以中英双语列出你必须掌握的关键概念和定义。你可以用它来检验自己的掌握程度，找出需要加强练习的知识点。
1. Measurements and Units | 测量与单位
Know the SI base units for length (metre, m), mass (kilogram, kg), time (second, s), current (ampere, A), and temperature (kelvin, K). Be able to use prefixes such as milli (10⁻³), centi (10⁻²), kilo (10³), and mega (10⁶).
掌握基本国际单位：长度（米，m）、质量（千克，kg）、时间（秒，s）、电流（安培，A）和温度（开尔文，K）。能够使用词头，如毫（10⁻³）、厘（10⁻²）、千（10³）和兆（10⁶）。
Use measuring instruments correctly, including rulers, vernier calipers, micrometers, stopwatches, and ammeters. Understand parallax error and how to reduce it.
正确使用测量工具，包括直尺、游标卡尺、千分尺、秒表和电流表。理解视差误差及其避免方法。
When recording data, always give the reading to the correct number of decimal places or significant figures that match the instrument’s precision.
记录数据时，要根据仪器的精度，取到恰当的小数位数或有效数字。
2. Kinematics | 运动学
Distinguish between distance (scalar) and displacement (vector). Speed is the rate of change of distance, while velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
区分路程（标量）和位移（矢量）。速率是路程的变化率，而速度是位移的变化率。
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity: a = (v − u) / t. It can be positive (speeding up) or negative (slowing down, also called deceleration).
加速度是速度的变化率：a = (v − u) / t。加速度可为正值（加速）或负值（减速，也称负加速）。
Interpret and draw displacement–time, velocity–time, and speed–time graphs. For velocity–time graphs, the gradient gives acceleration, and the area under the graph gives displacement.
能够解读并绘制位移–时间、速度–时间和速率–时间图像。在速度–时间图像中，斜率表示加速度，图像下方所包围的面积表示位移。
Apply the equations of uniformly accelerated motion: v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², v² = u² + 2as. In free fall, acceleration g = 9.8 m/s² (approx.) acting downwards.
应用匀加速运动公式：v = u + at，s = ut + ½at²，v² = u² + 2as。在自由落体中，加速度向下，约 g = 9.8 m/s²。
3. Dynamics | 动力学
Newton’s first law: An object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted upon by a resultant force. Newton’s second law: F = m × a, where F is the resultant force.
牛顿第一定律：物体在不受合外力作用时，保持静止或匀速直线运动。牛顿第二定律：F = m × a，其中 F 为合外力。
Newton’s third law: Action and reaction forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction, but they act on different bodies.
牛顿第三定律：作用力与反作用力大小相等、方向相反，但作用在不同物体上。
Understand mass (amount of matter) and weight (gravitational force, W = m g). Friction opposes motion and can be reduced by lubrication or streamlining.
理解质量（所含物质的多少）和重量（重力，W = m g）。摩擦力阻碍运动，可通过润滑或流线型设计来减小。
Momentum p = m v. In a closed system, total momentum before a collision or explosion equals total momentum after (principle of conservation of momentum).
动量 p = m v。在一个封闭系统中，碰撞或爆炸前、后的总动量守恒（动量守恒定律）。
4. Energy, Work, and Power | 能量、功和功率
Work done = force × distance moved in the direction of the force (W = F d). Energy is the ability to do work and is measured in joules (J).
做功 = 力 × 沿力方向的位移（W = F d）。能量是做功的本领，单位为焦耳（J）。
Kinetic energy Eₖ = ½ m v², gravitational potential energy Eₚ = m g h. Strain energy (elastic potential) for a spring: E = ½ k x².
动能 Eₖ = ½ m v²，重力势能 Eₚ = m g h。弹簧的弹性势能：E = ½ k x²。
Principle of conservation of energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transferred or transformed. Use this to solve problems involving energy changes.
能量守恒定律：能量既不能创生也不能消灭，只能转移或转化。用此定律解决涉及能量转换的问题。
Power is the rate of work done or energy transferred: P = W / t. Efficiency = useful output energy (or power) / total input energy (or power) × 100%.
功率是做功或能量转移的速率：P = W / t。效率 = 有用输出能量（或功率）/ 总输入能量（或功率）× 100%。
5. Pressure | 压强
Pressure p = F / A, where A is the area over which the force acts. Unit: pascal (Pa), 1 Pa = 1 N/m².
压强 p = F / A，其中 A 为受力面积。单位：帕斯卡（Pa），1 Pa = 1 N/m²。
In fluids, pressure increases with depth: p = h ρ g, where h is depth, ρ is fluid density. Hydraulic systems use the transmission of pressure in an enclosed liquid to multiply force (Pascal’s principle).
在流体中，压强随深度增加：p = h ρ g，h 为深度，ρ 为流体密度。液压系统利用密闭液体传递压强来增大力（帕斯卡原理）。
Atmospheric pressure can be measured with a barometer. Manometers measure pressure differences using a liquid column.
大气压强可用气压计测量。U 形管压强计利用液柱测量压强差。
6. Thermal Physics | 热物理
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of particles. Common scales: Celsius (°C) and Kelvin (K), where T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.
温度是粒子平均动能的量度。常用温标：摄氏温标（°C）和开尔文温标（K），换算关系 T(K) = θ(°C) + 273。
Heat capacity C = Q / Δθ; specific heat capacity c = Q / (m Δθ). Use E = m c Δθ to calculate heat energy transfers without change of state.
热容量 C = Q / Δθ；比热容 c = Q / (m Δθ)。使用 E = m c Δθ 计算不发生物态变化时的热传递。
Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released during a change of state at constant temperature. Specific latent heat L = Q / m. Distinguish between latent heat of fusion (solid–liquid) and vaporisation (liquid–gas).
潜热是物质在恒定温度下发生物态变化时吸收或放出的能量。比潜热 L = Q / m。区分熔化潜热（固–液）和汽化潜热（液–气）。
Heat transfer mechanisms: conduction (solids, via particle vibrations, metals also via free electrons), convection (fluids, due to density changes), and radiation (infrared electromagnetic waves, can travel through a vacuum).
热传递方式：传导（固体中通过粒子振动，金属还可通过自由电子）、对流（流体中由于密度变化）和辐射（红外电磁波，可在真空中传播）。
Good absorbers of radiation are also good emitters. Shiny, light surfaces reflect radiation and are poor absorbers/emitters.
良好的辐射吸收体也是良好的辐射体。浅色、光亮的表面反射辐射，是较差的吸收体和辐射体。
7. Waves | 波
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves have vibrations perpendicular to the direction of energy travel (e.g. light, water ripples). Longitudinal waves have vibrations parallel to the energy travel (e.g. sound).
波传递能量而不传递物质。横波的振动方向与能量传播方向垂直（如光波、水波）。纵波的振动方向与能量传播方向平行（如声波）。
Key wave terms: amplitude (maximum displacement from rest), wavelength λ (distance between two consecutive identical points in phase), frequency f (number of complete waves per second, in Hz), period T = 1/f.
关键波动概念：振幅（偏离平衡位置的最大位移），波长 λ（相邻两个同相位点之间的距离），频率 f（每秒完整波数，单位赫兹），周期 T = 1/f。
Wave equation: v = f λ. Apply this to all types of wave.
波速公式：v = f λ。适用于所有类型的波。
Reflection: angle of incidence i equals angle of reflection r, measured from the normal. Refraction: waves change speed when entering a different medium, causing a change in direction unless they are incident normally.
反射：入射角 i 等于反射角 r，均从法线量起。折射：波进入另一种介质时波速改变，方向也随之改变（垂直入射除外）。
Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles or through gaps. The effect is most pronounced when the gap size is comparable to the wavelength.
衍射是波绕过障碍物或穿过狭缝时发生的扩散现象。当狭缝尺寸与波长相近时，衍射效果最明显。
8. Light and Optics | 光学
The law of reflection applies to plane mirrors. The image formed is virtual, upright, laterally inverted, and the same size as the object.
光的反射定律适用于平面镜。所形成的像是虚像、正立、左右颠倒，且与物体等大。
Refraction occurs when light passes from one medium to another. Use Snell’s law: n = sin i / sin r, where n is the refractive index. Light bends towards the normal when entering a denser medium.
光从一种介质进入另一种介质时发生折射。使用斯涅耳定律：n = sin i / sin r，n 为折射率。光进入光密介质时向法线偏折。
Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from a denser to a rarer medium and the angle of incidence exceeds the critical angle c (sin c = 1/n). Applications: optical fibres, prisms in periscopes.
当光从光密介质射向光疏介质，且入射角大于临界角 c（sin c = 1/n）时，发生全内反射。应用：光纤、潜望镜中的棱镜。
Converging (convex) lenses form real or virtual images depending on object distance. Use the lens formula 1/f = 1/u + 1/v and magnification m = v / u. Draw ray diagrams to locate images.
会聚（凸）透镜根据物体距离可以成实像或虚像。使用透镜公式 1/f = 1/u + 1/v 和放大率 m = v / u。通过光路图确定像的位置。
9. Electricity | 电学
Current I is the rate of flow of charge, I = Q / t, measured in amperes (A). In a metal, current is a flow of free electrons.
电流 I 是电荷流动的速率，I = Q / t，单位安培（A）。在金属中，电流是自由电子的流动。
Potential difference (voltage) V between two points is the energy transferred per unit charge: V = W / Q. Electromotive force (e.m.f.) is the energy supplied per unit charge by a source.
两点间的电势差（电压）V 是每单位电荷所转移的能量：V = W / Q。电动势（e.m.f.）是电源每单位电荷所提供的能量。
Resistance R = V / I, unit ohm (Ω). Ohm’s law applies to ohmic conductors where V is directly proportional to I at constant temperature. Use resistors, filament lamps, and diodes to understand non-ohmic behaviour.
电阻 R = V / I，单位欧姆（Ω）。欧姆定律适用于欧姆导体（恒温下 V 与 I 成正比）。通过定值电阻、白炽灯和二极管理解非欧姆特性。
Series circuits: current is the same everywhere, total resistance Rₜ = R₁ + R₂ + …, p.d. is shared. Parallel circuits: p.d. across each branch is the same, currents add up, total resistance 1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + ….
串联电路：电流处处相等，总电阻 Rₜ = R₁ + R₂ + …，电压被分配。并联电路：各支路电压相等，干路电流等于各支路电流之和，总电阻满足 1/Rₜ = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + …。
Electrical power P = V I = I² R = V² / R. Energy transferred E = V I t.
电功率 P = V I = I² R = V² / R。电能转移 E = V I t。
10. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁学与电磁学
Magnets have north and south poles. Like poles repel, unlike poles attract. Magnetic fields can be plotted with compasses or iron filings; field lines run from north to south.
磁体具有北极和南极。同名磁极相互排斥，异名磁极相互吸引。磁场可用指南针或铁屑描绘；磁感线方向由北极指向南极。
An electric current in a wire produces a magnetic field (right-hand grip rule). A solenoid (coil) creates a strong, uniform magnetic field inside – it acts as an electromagnet whose strength can be increased by more turns, higher current, or an iron core.
通电导线周围产生磁场（右手定则）。螺线管内部产生强而均匀的磁场，相当于电磁铁，其磁性强弱可通过增加匝数、增大电流或插入铁芯来增强。
When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, a force acts on it (motor effect). Use Fleming’s left-hand rule to determine the direction of force. The force F = B I L sin θ, where B is magnetic flux density.
通电导体在磁场中会受到力的作用（电动机效应）。用弗莱明左手定则判断力的方向。力的大小 F = B I L sin θ，其中 B 为磁通量密度。
Electromagnetic induction: a changing magnetic field in a coil induces an e.m.f. The induced e.m.f. depends on the rate of change of magnetic flux (Faraday’s law). Applications include the simple a.c. generator and transformer.
电磁感应：线圈中变化的磁场会感应出电动势。感应电动势的大小取决于磁通量的变化率（法拉第定律）。应用包括交流发电机和变压器。
The transformer equation: Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ. Input power ≈ output power for an ideal transformer, so Vₚ Iₚ = Vₛ Iₛ.
变压器公式：Vₚ / Vₛ = Nₚ / Nₛ。理想变压器的输入功率约等于输出功率，即 Vₚ Iₚ = Vₛ Iₛ。
11. Atomic Physics | 原子物理
The nuclear model of the atom: a small, dense, positively charged nucleus (containing protons and neutrons) surrounded by orbiting electrons. Atomic number Z = number of protons; mass number A = total protons + neutrons. Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
原子的核式结构：一个微小、致密、带正电的原子核（含质子和中子），周围有电子绕行。原子序数 Z = 质子数；质量数 A = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素是同种元素的中子数不同的原子。
Radioactive decay is a random process in which an unstable nucleus emits alpha (α), beta (β), or gamma (γ) radiation. Properties: α – highly ionising, low penetration, stopped by paper; β – moderate ionisation and penetration, stopped by a few mm of aluminium; γ – weakly ionising, very penetrating, reduced by thick lead or concrete.
放射性衰变是一种随机过程，不稳定原子核会发射 α、β 或 γ 射线。特性：α – 电离能力强、穿透力弱，可被纸张阻挡；β – 电离和穿透能力中等，可被几毫米铝片阻挡；γ – 电离能力弱、穿透力强，需厚铅板或混凝土才能减弱。
Detection methods: Geiger–Müller (GM) tube, photographic film, cloud chamber. Background radiation comes from rocks, cosmic rays, and artificial sources.
探测方法：盖革–米勒（GM）计数器、照相胶片、云室。背景辐射来源于岩石、宇宙射线及人工源。
Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. Use this to calculate the remaining fraction after a given time. Safety precautions: minimise time, maximise distance, use shielding.
半衰期是样品中一半的放射性原子核发生衰变所需的时间。利用半衰期计算给定时间后剩余的比例。安全防护：缩短时间、增大距离、使用屏蔽。
Nuclear fission: a heavy nucleus (e.g. uranium-235) splits into two smaller nuclei, releasing energy and neutrons, which can cause a chain reaction. Nuclear fusion: light nuclei (e.g. hydrogen isotopes) combine to form a heavier nucleus, releasing energy – the process powering the Sun.
核裂变：重核（如铀-235）分裂成两个较小的核，释放能量和中子，可能引发链式反应。核聚变：轻核（如氢的同位素）结合形成较重的核，释放能量——太阳能量的来源。
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