IGCSE Chemistry 0620 2026-2028 Syllabus Experimental Skills | IGCSE 化学 0620 2026-2028 大纲实验操作

📚 IGCSE Chemistry 0620 2026-2028 Syllabus Experimental Skills | IGCSE 化学 0620 2026-2028 大纲实验操作

Experimental skills form the backbone of the Cambridge IGCSE Chemistry 0620 syllabus (2026–2028), enabling students to connect theory with hands‑on investigation. Mastering these skills is not only essential for practical assessments but also builds confidence in planning, observing, interpreting, and refining experiments. This guide provides a comprehensive walk‑through of the core techniques, apparatus, and evaluative practices required by the updated syllabus.

实验技能是剑桥 IGCSE 化学 0620（2026–2028 大纲）的核心，帮助学生将理论与动手探究结合起来。掌握这些技能不仅是应对实验考核的关键，也能培养规划、观察、解释和改进实验的能力。本指南全面梳理了最新大纲要求的核心技术、仪器设备和评价方法。

1. Apparatus and Measurement | 仪器与测量

Accurate measurement and appropriate choice of apparatus are fundamental to all chemical experiments. A measuring cylinder provides approximate volumes (±0.5 cm³), while a burette delivers precise variable volumes (±0.05 cm³) for titrations. A volumetric pipette is used for a fixed volume with high accuracy. Temperature is measured with a thermometer (±0.5 °C), and mass with a digital balance (±0.01 g). Always read the bottom of the meniscus at eye level when using liquid‑measuring instruments.

精确测量和正确选用仪器是所有化学实验的基础。量筒用于量取近似体积（±0.5 cm³），滴定管可精确读取可变体积（±0.05 cm³），适用于滴定；移液管用于准确移取固定体积。温度用温度计测量（±0.5 °C），质量用电子天平称量（±0.01 g）。读取液体体积时必须视线与凹液面最低处水平。

Apparatus	Typical Use	Precision
Beaker	Holding or heating liquids	Rough volumes only
Conical flask	Titrations, mixing without splashing	Not for volume measurement
Measuring cylinder	Quick volume transfer	±0.5 cm³
Burette	Delivering variable volumes, titrations	±0.05 cm³
Volumetric pipette	Transferring a fixed accurate volume	e.g. 25.0 cm³ ± 0.1 cm³
Digital balance	Measuring mass of solids	±0.01 g

仪器/中文对照：烧杯用于盛装或加热液体，只给出粗略体积；锥形瓶用于滴定和防溅，不用于体积测量；量筒快速转移液体；滴定管用于精确可变体积；移液管移取固定准确体积；电子天平称量固体质量。读取时注意视线与凹液面最低处水平。

2. Collecting and Drying Gases | 气体的收集与干燥

The method of gas collection depends on the density and solubility of the gas. Gases that are insoluble or slightly soluble in water (e.g. O₂, H₂, CO₂) can be collected over water in an inverted measuring cylinder or gas jar. For gases denser than air (e.g. CO₂, Cl₂, SO₂), downward delivery — allowing the gas to sink into an upright container — works well. Gases less dense than air (e.g. H₂, NH₃) require upward delivery using an inverted container. A gas can be dried by passing it through a drying agent such as concentrated sulfuric acid (for acidic and neutral gases) or anhydrous calcium chloride (for most neutral and acidic gases).

收集气体的方法取决于其密度和水溶性。难溶或微溶于水的气体（如 O₂、H₂、CO₂）可用排水法，在倒扣的量筒或集气瓶中收集。密度大于空气的气体（如 CO₂、Cl₂、SO₂）用向下排空气法——让气体沉入正立的容器。密度小于空气的气体（如 H₂、NH₃）用向上排空气法，使用倒转的容器。干燥气体时可让其通过干燥剂，如浓硫酸（用于酸性及中性气体）或无水氯化钙（多数中性和酸性气体可用）。

Water displacement: used for O₂, H₂, CO₂ (slightly soluble but acceptable); avoids loss of gas.

排水法：用于 O₂、H₂、CO₂（微溶但可接受）；避免气体损失。
Downward delivery: for dense gases; gas inlet at the bottom of the jar.

向下排空气法：用于密度大的气体；进气管插至瓶底。
Upward delivery: for light gases; gas inlet near the top of an inverted jar.

向上排空气法：用于轻的气体；进气管置于倒置容器的顶部附近。
Drying agents: concentrated H₂SO₄ cannot dry NH₃ (it reacts); use CaO for NH₃.

干燥剂：浓 H₂SO₄ 不能干燥 NH₃（会反应）；干燥 NH₃ 用 CaO。

3. Separation Techniques: Filtration and Crystallisation | 分离技术：过滤与结晶

Filtration separates an insoluble solid from a liquid. A mixture is poured through a filter paper in a funnel; the residue (solid) collects on the paper, while the filtrate (liquid) passes through. This is used to remove impurities or to collect a precipitate. Crystallisation obtains a pure solid from a solution. The solution is heated to evaporate some solvent (concentrating it), then left to cool slowly. As solubility decreases, crystals form. The crystals are separated by filtration, washed with a little cold distilled water, and dried between sheets of filter paper or in a warm oven.

过滤用于分离不溶性固体和液体。混合物倒入漏斗中的滤纸，滤渣（固体）留在纸上，滤液（液体）通过。此技术用于除杂或收集沉淀。结晶可将纯固体从溶液中提取出来。加热蒸发部分溶剂（浓缩溶液），然后缓慢冷却。溶解度降低，晶体析出。晶体通过过滤分离，用少量冷蒸馏水洗涤，夹在滤纸间或放在温烘箱中干燥。

Hot filtration: used when the solid may crystallise in cold apparatus; keep funnel and solvent warm.

热过滤：当固体可能在冷仪器中析出时使用；保持漏斗和溶剂温热。
‘Saturated on cooling’ is the principle: cooling a hot saturated solution reduces solubility, forming pure crystals while impurities stay dissolved.

“冷却饱和”原理：冷却热的饱和溶液，溶解度下降，纯晶体生成，杂质留在母液中。
Washing crystals removes soluble impurities; drying prevents them from sticking together.

洗涤晶体除去可溶性杂质；干燥防止晶体粘连。

4. Separation Techniques: Distillation and Chromatography | 分离技术：蒸馏与色谱

Simple distillation separates a solvent from a solution based on differences in boiling points. The solution is heated in a distillation flask; the solvent vaporises, passes through a condenser (where cold water enters from the bottom), and condenses back to liquid collected as the distillate. Fractional distillation uses a fractionating column to separate a mixture of two or more miscible liquids with close boiling points (e.g. ethanol and water). Paper chromatography separates dissolved substances due to their different partition between a stationary phase (water on paper) and a mobile phase (solvent). The distance each component travels is measured, and R_f values are calculated: R_f = distance moved by substance ÷ distance moved by solvent front.

简单蒸馏根据沸点差异分离溶剂和溶液。溶液在蒸馏烧瓶中加热，溶剂汽化，进入冷凝管（冷水下进上出），冷凝为液体作为馏出液收集。分馏使用分馏柱分离沸点相近的两种或多种互溶液体（如乙醇和水）。纸色谱根据物质在固定相（纸上的水）和流动相（溶剂）之间分配不同而分离。测量各组分移动距离，计算 R_f 值：R_f = 物质移动距离 ÷ 溶剂前沿移动距离。

R_f = distance moved by spot / distance moved by solvent front

Avoid heating to dryness in distillation to prevent decomposition. Anti‑bumping granules ensure smooth boiling.

蒸馏时勿蒸干以防分解；加入沸石保证平稳沸腾。
In chromatography, use a pencil to draw the baseline (ink would separate). The solvent level must be below the spots.

色谱中，用铅笔划基线（墨水会扩散）；溶剂液面必须低于色斑。
R_f values help identify substances, as each compound has a characteristic R_f under the same conditions.

R_f 值用于鉴定物质，相同条件下各化合物有其特征 R_f 值。

5. pH and Indicators | pH 和指示剂

The pH scale (0–14) measures the acidity or alkalinity of an aqueous solution. Universal indicator solution or paper gives a range of colours across the scale. For routine acid‑base titrations, single indicators like methyl orange or phenolphthalein are preferred because they produce a sharp colour change at a specific pH range. Litmus paper simply distinguishes acid (red) from alkali (blue). The syllabus expects students to select an appropriate indicator for a given titration and to interpret colours correctly.

pH 标度（0–14）衡量水溶液的酸碱性。通用指示剂溶液或试纸在整个标度上呈现不同颜色。在常规酸碱滴定中，单一指示剂如甲基橙或酚酞更合适，因为它们能在特定 pH 范围内产生敏锐的颜色突变。石蕊试纸仅区分酸（红）和碱（蓝）。大纲要求学生能选择合适的滴定指示剂并正确解读颜色。

Indicator	Colour in acid	Colour in alkali	Typical use
Methyl orange	Red	Yellow	Strong acid – strong base / weak base
Phenolphthalein	Colourless	Pink	Strong base – weak/strong acid

中文对照：甲基橙在酸中红色，碱中黄色，用于强酸与强碱或弱碱滴定；酚酞在酸中无色，碱中粉红色，用于强碱与弱酸或强酸滴定。测量 pH 可用 pH 计获得更精确的数值。

6. Flame Tests and Ion Identification | 焰色试验与离子鉴定

Flame tests help identify certain metal cations by their characteristic colours. Clean a nichrome or platinum wire in concentrated HCl, dip it in the sample powder, and introduce it into a roaring Bunsen flame. Observe the flame colour: Li⁺ crimson red, Na⁺ intense yellow, K⁺ lilac, Ca²⁺ brick red, Cu²⁺ blue‑green. For anion tests, sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) give a white precipitate with barium chloride solution acidified with dilute HCl. Halide ions produce silver halide precipitates with silver nitrate acidified with dilute HNO₃: Cl⁻ white, Br⁻ cream, I⁻ yellow. Carbonate ions (CO₃²⁻) effervesce with dilute acid, releasing CO₂.

焰色试验通过特征焰色鉴定某些金属阳离子。用浓盐酸清洗镍铬丝或铂丝，蘸取样品粉末，放入本生灯焰色。观察焰色：Li⁺ 深红色，Na⁺ 亮黄色，K⁺ 淡紫色，Ca²⁺ 砖红色，Cu²⁺ 蓝绿色。阴离子测试：硫酸根离子（SO₄²⁻）在稀盐酸酸化下加氯化钡溶液产生白色沉淀。卤离子在稀硝酸酸化下加硝酸银产生卤化银沉淀：Cl⁻ 白色，Br⁻ 奶油色，I⁻ 黄色。碳酸根（CO₃²⁻）与稀酸反应冒泡，产生 CO₂。

Ag⁺(aq) + Cl⁻(aq) → AgCl(s) white precipitate

Ba²⁺(aq) + SO₄²⁻(aq) → BaSO₄(s) white solid

Use dilute HNO₃ when testing for halides to remove carbonate interference (which would also give a precipitate with Ag⁺).

测试卤离子时用稀硝酸排除碳酸根干扰（碳酸根也会与 Ag⁺ 生成沉淀）。
Confirm CO₂ by bubbling through limewater — turns milky.

将 CO₂ 通入石灰水确认——变浑浊。
Ammonium ions (NH₄⁺) produce ammonia gas on warming with NaOH, recognised by damp red litmus turning blue.

铵离子（NH₄⁺）与 NaOH 温热产生氨气，用湿润的红色石蕊试纸变蓝检验。

7. Salt Preparation: Making Copper(II) Sulfate Crystals | 盐的制备：制取硫酸铜晶体

Copper(II) sulfate crystals (CuSO₄·5H₂O) are typically prepared by reacting copper(II) oxide (an insoluble base) with warm dilute sulfuric acid. Add excess black CuO to the acid while stirring until no more dissolves, ensuring all acid is neutralised. Heat gently, then filter the hot mixture to remove unreacted CuO. Collect the blue filtrate and evaporate some water by heating until a saturated solution is obtained, then leave to cool slowly. Blue crystals of hydrated copper(II) sulfate form. Filter the crystals, wash with a little cold distilled water, and dry between filter paper.

硫酸铜晶体（CuSO₄·5H₂O）通常由氧化铜（不溶性碱）与温热稀硫酸反应制得。将过量黑色 CuO 加入酸中搅拌至不再溶解，确保所有酸被中和。微热后趁热过滤，除去未反应的 CuO。收集蓝色滤液，加热蒸发部分水分至饱和溶液，然后缓慢冷却。蓝色水合硫酸铜晶体析出。过滤晶体，用少量冷蒸馏水洗涤，夹在滤纸间干燥。

CuO(s) + H₂SO₄(aq) → CuSO₄(aq) + H₂O(l)

Using excess insoluble base ensures the acid is completely used up; leftover base is removed by filtration.

用过量的不溶性碱确保酸完全反应；剩余碱通过过滤除去。
Cooling slowly produces larger, purer crystals. Do not evaporate to dryness — anhydrous CuSO₄ is white and can decompose.

缓慢冷却得到大而纯的晶体。切勿蒸干——无水 CuSO₄ 是白色的，且可能分解。

8. Rate of Reaction Experiments | 反应速率实验

The effect of concentration, temperature, surface area and catalysts on reaction rate can be studied using the reaction between marble chips (calcium carbonate) and dilute hydrochloric acid: CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g). Rate is monitored by measuring the volume of CO₂ gas produced in a given time using a gas syringe or by measuring the loss in mass over time. For concentration investigations, different dilutions of HCl are used while keeping mass of chips constant. For temperature, the acid is pre‑heated or cooled. Surface area is altered by using lumps versus powder. A catalyst (e.g. manganese(IV) oxide for hydrogen peroxide decomposition) can also be tested.

研究浓度、温度、表面积和催化剂对反应速率的影响，常用大理石（碳酸钙）与稀盐酸反应：CaCO₃(s) + 2HCl(aq) → CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g)。速率可通过气体注射器测量一定时间产生的 CO₂ 体积，或测定随时间变化的质量损失来监测。研究浓度时，保持大理石质量不变，用不同稀释度的 HCl。温度实验则预先加热或冷却盐酸。表面积通过块状与粉末状对比改变。催化剂（如过氧化氢分解的二氧化锰）也可用于测试。

Rate = volume of gas produced / time taken or mass lost / time

Control variables: amount and size of marble, volume of acid, pressure, etc. Only change one factor at a time.

控制变量：大理石的质量和大小、酸的体积、压强等。每次只改变一个因素。
Plotting volume vs time gives a graph; the steeper the slope, the faster the rate. The initial rate is taken before the curve levels off.

绘制体积-时间图，斜率越大，速率越快。初始速率取曲线趋于平缓之前的一段。
For loss‑in‑mass method, connect a conical flask containing the reaction mixture to a cotton wool plug (to allow gas escape but prevent acid spray) on a balance.

质量损失法：装有反应混合物的锥形瓶塞上棉塞（逸气防溅），放置在电子天平上。

9. Energy Changes: Measuring Temperature Change | 能量变化：测量温度变化

Exothermic and endothermic changes are detected by temperature rise or fall in an insulated container (polystyrene cup). For a calorimetry experiment, you can measure the enthalpy change of neutralisation: mix equal volumes of a strong acid and strong alkali (e.g. 50 cm³ each of 1.0 mol/dm³ HCl and NaOH) in a polystyrene cup, record the initial and highest temperature, and calculate ΔT. The heat energy change, q = mcΔT, where m is total mass of solution (≈100 g, assuming density ≈1 g/cm³), c is specific heat capacity of water (4.18 J/g°C), ΔT is temperature change. Enthalpy change per mole can then be determined.

放热和吸热变化可通过隔热容器（聚苯乙烯杯）中的温度升降来检测。在量热实验中，可测定中和反应的焓变：将等体积的强酸和强碱（如各 50 cm³、1.0 mol/dm³ 的 HCl 和 NaOH）在聚苯乙烯杯中混合，记录初始和最高温度，计算 ΔT。热量变化 q = mcΔT，其中 m 是溶液总质量（约 100 g，假设密度 ≈1 g/cm³），c 是水的比热容（4.18 J/g°C），ΔT 为温差。进而可求算每摩尔的焓变。

q = m × c × ΔT

ΔH (per mole) = – q / moles of limiting reactant

Use a thermometer readable to ±0.2 °C or better. Stir continuously and record the maximum temperature after mixing.

使用可读至 ±0.2 °C 或更精确的温度计。连续搅拌，记录混合后的最高温度。
Work quickly to minimise heat loss to surroundings. The energy change is approximate due to heat loss and assumptions.

快速操作以减少热散失。因热量损失和假设，能量变化为近似值。
Other investigations: adding metal to acid (exothermic), dissolving ammonium nitrate in water (endothermic).

其他研究：金属加酸（放热），硝酸铵溶于水（吸热）。

10. Titration and Volumetric Analysis | 滴定与容量分析

Titration determines the precise volume of one solution needed to react completely with a known volume of another. In an acid‑base titration, a standard solution (known concentration) is placed in a burette, and a fixed volume of the analyte is pipetted into a conical flask with a few drops of indicator. The titrant is added slowly, with swirling, until the indicator just changes colour permanently (end‑point). The process is repeated to obtain concordant titres (within 0.1 cm³). The reliable titre is used to calculate the unknown concentration using the balanced equation.

滴定用于测定一种溶液与已知体积的另一溶液完全反应所需的精确体积。酸碱滴定中，标准溶液（已知浓度）装入滴定管，用移液管移取固定体积的被测溶液于锥形瓶，加入几滴指示剂。缓慢加入滴定剂，不断旋摇，直至指示剂发生持久颜色变化（终点）。重复操作得到相差不超过 0.1 cm³ 的吻合滴定值。用可靠的滴定值结合配平的化学方程式计算未知浓度。

Moles = concentration (mol/dm³) × volume (dm³)

(C₁ × V₁) / n₁ = (C₂ × V₂) / n₂

Rinse burette with the solution to be filled, pipette with the analyte, and conical flask only with distilled water.

滴定管用待装液润洗，移液管用被测液润洗，锥形瓶只用蒸馏水冲洗。
Read the bottom of the meniscus. Add titrant dropwise near the end‑point to avoid overshooting.

读取凹液面最低处。接近终点时逐滴加入滴定剂，以防过量。
Calculate the mean of concordant titres only; ignore any rough first attempt.

仅计算吻合滴定值的平均值；忽略初次的粗测值。

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IGCSE Chemistry 0620 2026-2028 Syllabus Experimental Skills | IGCSE 化学 0620 2026-2028 大纲实验操作