📚 IGCSE CIE Physics: Pre-Exam Core Knowledge Review Outline | IGCSE CIE 物理考前核心知识点复习大纲
This revision checklist covers the essential knowledge required for the IGCSE CIE Physics examination. Use it to quickly audit your understanding of motion, forces, energy, waves, electricity, magnetism, nuclear physics, space physics, and experimental skills. Each section presents key concepts, equations, and definitions in bite-sized English-Chinese paired paragraphs to reinforce active recall.
本复习大纲涵盖了IGCSE CIE物理考试所需的核心知识点。你可以用它快速检查自己对运动学、力、能量、波、电学、磁学、核物理、空间物理和实验技能的理解。每一节都以英中对照的要点呈现关键概念、方程和定义，帮助强化主动回忆。
1. Motion and Kinematics | 运动学
Distance is a scalar quantity measuring how far an object moves; displacement is a vector and includes direction. Speed is the rate of change of distance (s/t), while velocity is the rate of change of displacement.
距离是标量，衡量物体移动的多远；位移是矢量，包含方向。速率是距离的变化率(s/t)，而速度是位移的变化率。
Acceleration a = (v – u) / t, where u is initial velocity and v is final velocity. If acceleration is constant, the SUVAT equations apply: v = u + at, s = ut + ½at², v² = u² + 2as, and s = (u+v)t/2.
加速度 a = (v – u) / t，其中 u 是初速度，v 是末速度。若加速度恒定，适用匀加速运动方程：v = u + at，s = ut + ½at²，v² = u² + 2as，以及 s = (u+v)t/2。
On a distance-time graph, the gradient gives speed. On a speed-time graph, the gradient gives acceleration and the area under the graph gives distance travelled.
在距离-时间图上，斜率表示速率。在速度-时间图上，斜率表示加速度，图线下的面积表示经过的距离。
Free fall near the Earth’s surface has constant acceleration g ≈ 9.8 m/s², directed downwards.
地球表面附近的自由落体具有恒定的加速度 g ≈ 9.8 m/s²，方向向下。
2. Forces and Newton’s Laws | 力与牛顿定律
A force can change an object’s shape, speed or direction. It is a vector, measured in newtons (N). Newton’s first law states that an object remains at rest or in uniform motion unless acted on by a resultant force.
力可以改变物体的形状、速度或方向。力是矢量，以牛顿(N)为单位。牛顿第一定律指出，物体将保持静止或匀速直线运动，除非受到合外力的作用。
Newton’s second law: F = ma. The acceleration is directly proportional to the resultant force and inversely proportional to mass. Mass is a measure of inertia; weight W = mg is the gravitational force on a mass.
牛顿第二定律：F = ma。加速度与合外力成正比，与质量成反比。质量是惯性的度量；重量 W = mg 是作用在质量上的引力。
Newton’s third law: when two objects interact, they exert equal and opposite forces on each other. These forces act on different bodies.
牛顿第三定律：两个物体相互作用时，彼此施加大小相等、方向相反的力。这些力作用在不同的物体上。
Terminal velocity occurs when the resistance forces (air resistance or drag) balance the driving force, resulting in zero resultant force and constant speed.
当阻力（空气阻力或拖拽力）与驱动力平衡时，合外力为零，物体达到终极速度，保持匀速运动。
Moment of a force = F × d, where d is the perpendicular distance from the pivot. For equilibrium, total clockwise moment = total anticlockwise moment and resultant force is zero.
力矩 = F × d，其中 d 是支点到力作用线的垂直距离。平衡时，顺时针总力矩等于逆时针总力矩，且合外力为零。
3. Work, Energy and Power | 功、能量与功率
Work done W = Fd cos θ, often simply W = Fd when force and displacement are parallel. Energy is the capacity to do work; both are measured in joules (J).
功 W = Fd cos θ，当力与位移平行时常简化为 W = Fd。能量是做功的本领；两者均以焦耳(J)为单位。
Kinetic energy KE = ½mv²; gravitational potential energy GPE = mgh. In closed systems, energy is conserved, meaning it transfers between stores but total energy remains constant.
动能 KE = ½mv²；重力势能 GPE = mgh。在封闭系统中，能量守恒，即能量在不同储存形式间转移，但总能量保持不变。
Power is the rate of doing work or transferring energy: P = W/t or P = E/t. The unit is the watt (W), where 1 W = 1 J/s.
功率是做功或传递能量的速率：P = W/t 或 P = E/t。单位是瓦特(W)，1 W = 1 J/s。
Efficiency = (useful energy output / total energy input) × 100%, or (useful power output / total power input) × 100%. Efficiency is always less than 100% due to dissipated thermal energy.
效率 = (有用能量输出 / 总能量输入) × 100%，或 (有用功率输出 / 总功率输入) × 100%。由于热能耗散，效率总是低于100%。
4. Thermal Physics and Kinetic Theory | 热物理与分子动理论
Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of particles; it is not the same as heat, which is thermal energy transferred from hot to cold. The Celsius and Kelvin scales are related by T(K) = θ(°C) + 273.
温度是粒子平均动能的量度；它不同于热量，热量是从高温物体传递到低温物体的热能。摄氏温标与开氏温标的关系为：T(K) = θ(°C) + 273。
Specific heat capacity c is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C: Q = mcΔθ. The specific latent heat L is the energy required to change the state of 1 kg without temperature change: Q = mL.
比热容 c 是将1 kg物质升高1 °C所需的能量：Q = mcΔθ。比潜热 L 是使1 kg物质在不改变温度的情况下改变状态所需的能量：Q = mL。
According to the kinetic model, particles in solids vibrate in fixed positions, in liquids they slide past each other, and in gases they move rapidly and randomly. Pressure in a gas is due to collisions of particles with container walls.
根据分子动理论，固体的粒子在固定位置振动，液体的粒子可以相互滑动，气体的粒子快速而无规则地运动。气体压强源于粒子与容器壁的碰撞。
Increasing temperature increases particle speed and thus pressure (at constant volume). The absolute zero (0 K) is the temperature at which particles have minimum kinetic energy.
升高温度会增大粒子运动速率，从而增加压强（体积不变时）。绝对零度(0 K)是粒子动能最低时的温度。
5. Waves: Properties and Types | 波动：性质与类型
Waves transfer energy without transferring matter. Transverse waves have oscillations perpendicular to the direction of energy transfer (e.g. light), while longitudinal waves have oscillations parallel (e.g. sound).
波传播能量而不传播物质。横波的振动方向垂直于能量传播方向（如光），纵波的振动方向平行于能量传播方向（如声）。
Key terms: amplitude (maximum displacement from equilibrium), wavelength λ, frequency f (Hz), period T = 1/f. The wave equation: v = fλ.
关键术语：振幅（离开平衡位置的最大位移）、波长 λ、频率 f (Hz)、周期 T = 1/f。波动方程：v = fλ。
Reflection, refraction and diffraction are wave behaviours. Diffraction is the spreading of waves around obstacles or through gaps; it is most obvious when the gap width is similar to the wavelength.
反射、折射和衍射是波的行为。衍射是波绕过障碍物或穿过狭缝时发生的扩展现象；当缝宽与波长相近时，衍射最明显。
Refraction occurs when waves change speed entering a new medium, causing a change in direction if the wave hits the boundary at an angle. Snell’s law: n = sin i / sin r, where n is refractive index.
当波进入新介质时波速发生改变，若波以一定角度入射界面，则会发生折射。斯涅尔定律：n = sin i / sin r，其中 n 为折射率。
Total internal reflection occurs when light travels from higher n to lower n at an angle greater than the critical angle C, where sin C = 1/n.
当光从光密介质射向光疏介质，且入射角大于临界角 C 时，发生全内反射，sin C = 1/n。
6. Electromagnetic Spectrum | 电磁波谱
The electromagnetic spectrum, in order of increasing frequency/decreasing wavelength: radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, gamma rays. All EM waves travel at speed c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s in vacuum.
电磁波谱按频率递增或波长递减的顺序为：无线电波、微波、红外线、可见光、紫外线、X射线、伽马射线。所有电磁波在真空中都以 c = 3 × 10⁸ m/s 的速度传播。
Each region has distinct properties and uses: radio waves for communication; microwaves for cooking and satellite transmission; infrared for thermal imaging; visible light for sight; ultraviolet for sunbeds and sterilization; X-rays for medical imaging; gamma rays for cancer treatment and sterilization.
每个波段都有独特的性质和应用：无线电波用于通信；微波用于烹饪和卫星传输；红外线用于热成像；可见光用于视觉；紫外线用于日光浴和灭菌；X射线用于医学成像；伽马射线用于癌症治疗和灭菌。
Dangers: microwaves cause internal heating; infrared can cause skin burns; UV causes sunburn and skin cancer; X-rays and gamma rays are ionising and can damage cells and DNA.
危害：微波引起内部加热；红外线可导致皮肤灼伤；紫外线引起晒伤和皮肤癌；X射线和伽马射线具有电离作用，会损伤细胞和DNA。
7. Electricity and Circuits | 电学与电路
Current I is the rate of flow of charge: I = Q/t, measured in amperes (A). In a series circuit, current is the same everywhere. Voltage V is the energy transferred per unit charge; in parallel, voltage across each branch is equal.
电流 I 是电荷流动的速率：I = Q/t，单位为安培(A)。串联电路中各处电流相等。电压 V 是单位电荷转移的能量；并联电路中各支路两端电压相等。
Ohm’s law: V = IR applies to ohmic conductors at constant temperature. Resistance R is measured in ohms (Ω). Factors affecting resistance: length (R ∝ L), cross-sectional area (R ∝ 1/A), material and temperature.
欧姆定律：V = IR 适用于恒温下的欧姆导体。电阻 R 以欧姆(Ω)为单位。影响电阻的因素：长度(R ∝ L)、横截面积(R ∝ 1/A)、材料和温度。
Power in a circuit: P = IV = I²R = V²/R. Energy transferred E = Pt = IVt.
电路功率：P = IV = I²R = V²/R。传递的能量 E = Pt = IVt。
Series circuits: R_total = R₁ + R₂ + … ; current is same, voltage divides. Parallel circuits: 1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + … ; voltage same, current divides.
串联电路：总电阻 R_total = R₁ + R₂ + … ；电流相同，电压按比例分配。并联电路：1/R_total = 1/R₁ + 1/R₂ + … ；电压相同，电流分流。
8. Magnetism and Electromagnetism | 磁学与电磁学
Magnets have north and south poles; like poles repel, unlike poles attract. Magnetic field lines point from north to south outside a magnet. An electromagnet is a coil (solenoid) with a soft iron core; its strength can be increased by increasing current, number of turns, or adding an iron core.
磁体有北极和南极；同名磁极相互排斥，异名磁极相互吸引。磁感线在磁体外从北极指向南极。电磁铁是一个带有软铁芯的线圈（螺线管）；增大电流、增加匝数或加入铁芯均能增强其磁场。
A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force (motor effect). Fleming’s left-hand rule gives force direction: thumb – force, first finger – field, second finger – current. The force F = BIL for a wire perpendicular to field.
通电导线在磁场中受到力的作用（电动机效应）。弗莱明左手定则确定力方向：拇指 — 力，食指 — 磁场，中指 — 电流。当导线垂直于磁场时，力 F = BIL。
Electromagnetic induction: a changing magnetic field near a conductor induces an e.m.f. This is the generator effect. The induced e.m.f. can be increased by moving the magnet faster, using a stronger magnet, or adding more coil turns.
电磁感应：导体附近的磁场发生变化会感应出电动势，这就是发电机效应。增大磁铁运动速度、使用更强的磁铁或增加线圈匝数均可增大感应电动势。
A transformer changes the voltage of an alternating current. For an ideal transformer: Vp/Vs = Np/Ns (turns ratio). Step-up: Vs > Vp; step-down: Vs < Vp. Power is conserved: IpVp = IsVs.
变压器可改变交流电的电压。对理想变压器：Vp/Vs = Np/Ns（匝数比）。升压变压器：Vs > Vp；降压变压器：Vs < Vp。功率守恒：IpVp = IsVs。
9. Nuclear Physics and Radioactivity | 核物理与放射性
An atom consists of a nucleus (protons + neutrons) surrounded by electrons. Atomic (proton) number Z defines the element, mass (nucleon) number A = protons + neutrons. Isotopes have same Z but different A.
原子由核（质子+中子）和围绕的电子组成。原子序数 Z 决定元素种类，质量数 A = 质子数 + 中子数。同位素具有相同的 Z 但不同的 A。
Radioactive decay is spontaneous and random. Alpha decay: mass number decreases by 4, atomic number by 2; e.g. ²³⁸₉₂U → ²³⁴₉₀Th + ⁴₂He. Beta decay: neutron turns into proton and emits electron, mass number unchanged, atomic number increases by 1; e.g. ¹⁴₆C → ¹⁴₇N + ⁰₋₁e. Gamma emission often accompanies alpha or beta, with no change to mass or atomic number.
放射性衰变是自发的、随机的。α衰变：质量数减4，原子序数减2；例如 ²³⁸₉₂U → ²³⁴₉₀Th + ⁴₂He。β衰变：中子转变为质子并发出电子，质量数不变，原子序数加1；例如 ¹⁴₆C → ¹⁴₇N + ⁰₋₁e。γ辐射常伴随α或β衰变，不改变质量数和原子序数。
Properties: alpha particles are helium nuclei, strongly ionising, stopped by paper or a few cm of air. Beta particles are fast electrons, moderately ionising, stopped by a few mm of aluminium. Gamma rays are EM waves, weakly ionising, reduced by thick lead or concrete.
性质：α粒子是氦原子核，电离能力最强，可被纸或数厘米空气阻挡。β粒子是高速电子，电离能力中等，可被几毫米铝板阻挡。γ射线是电磁波，电离能力弱，需要厚铅板或混凝土才能减弱。
Half-life is the time taken for half the radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay. It is constant for a given isotope and used in dating and medical applications. Safety: use tongs, keep distance, store in lead containers.
半衰期是样品中一半放射性核发生衰变所需的时间。对给定同位素是常数，可用于定年及医疗应用。安全措施：使用夹子、保持距离、存放在铅容器中。
10. Space Physics | 空间物理
The Earth rotates on its axis once in 24 hours, causing day and night. It orbits the Sun in about 365 days, giving seasons due to the tilt of its axis. The Moon orbits the Earth, and its phases result from reflected sunlight.
地球绕地轴自转，约24小时一周，形成昼夜。地球绕太阳公转约365天，由于地轴倾斜而产生四季。月球绕地球运行，其相位变化源于反射太阳光。
The Solar System consists of the Sun, planets, dwarf planets, moons, asteroids and comets. Inner planets are rocky; outer planets are gas giants. Orbital motion is maintained by gravitational attraction providing centripetal force.
太阳系包括太阳、行星、矮行星、卫星、小行星和彗星。内行星是岩石质的；外行星是气态巨行星。轨道运动靠万有引力提供向心力来维持。
Stars form from clouds of dust and gas (nebula) pulled together by gravity; nuclear fusion of hydrogen to helium releases energy. A star like the Sun eventually becomes a red giant then a white dwarf. More massive stars may explode as supernovae, leaving neutron stars or black holes.
恒星由星际尘埃和气体（星云）在引力下聚集形成；氢核聚变成氦并释放能量。类似太阳的恒星最终变为红巨星，再成为白矮星。质量更大的恒星可能以超新星爆发结束，留下中子星或黑洞。
The universe began with the Big Bang; evidence includes cosmic microwave background radiation and redshift of galaxies. Redshift shows that galaxies are moving away, and more distant galaxies recede faster, indicating expansion.
宇宙起源于大爆炸；证据包括宇宙微波背景辐射和星系的红移。红移表明星系正在远离，越远的星系退行越快，说明宇宙在膨胀。
11. Practical Skills and Measurements | 实验技能与测量
Measure length with rulers (metre rule, vernier calipers, micrometers) and time with stopwatches or light gates. Always record readings to the nearest division, estimating one extra digit for analogue instruments.
使用直尺、游标卡尺、千分尺测量长度，使用秒表或光门测量时间。读数时，模拟仪器要估读到分度值的下一位。
Plan experiments to minimise sources of error: control variables, repeat measurements and calculate a mean, avoid parallax error by reading scales at eye level.
设计实验以减少误差来源：控制变量、重复测量并计算平均值、通过平视刻度避免视差。
Plot graphs with labelled axes, appropriate scales, and line of best fit. The gradient and intercept often give physical quantities (e.g. speed from distance-time graph). Describe patterns and evaluate reliability.
绘制图表时应标明坐标轴、选用合适的刻度，并画出最佳拟合线。斜率和截距常给出物理量（如从距离-时间图求出速度）。描述规律并评估可靠性。
Key relationship identification: direct proportionality passes through origin; linear relationships have constant gradient. Be prepared to calculate derived quantities from gradients or areas.
关键关系识别：正比例图像通过原点；线性关系的斜率恒定。要能根据斜率或面积计算导出量。
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