📚 AP Microeconomics Core English Terminology Set | AP微观经济学核心英文术语集
Mastering the core terminology is essential for success in AP Microeconomics. This set provides clear, concise definitions of the most commonly tested terms, aligned with the College Board curriculum. By learning these terms in both English and Chinese, you will strengthen your understanding of economic principles and improve your ability to apply them in multiple-choice questions, free-response questions, and real-world economic analysis. Use this guide as a study companion to build a solid foundation for the exam.
掌握核心术语是AP微观经济学取得成功的关键。这套术语集提供了与大学理事会课程大纲一致的最常见考试术语的清晰、简明定义。通过中英双语学习这些术语，你将加深对经济学原理的理解，并提升在选择题、简答题以及现实经济分析中的应用能力。请将本指南作为学习伴侣，为考试打下坚实基础。
1. Fundamental Economic Concepts | 基本经济概念
Scarcity: The fundamental economic problem that human wants are unlimited while resources are limited. Scarcity forces individuals, firms, and governments to make choices and incur opportunity costs.
稀缺性：人的欲望无限而资源有限这一基本经济问题。稀缺性迫使个人、企业和政府做出选择并承担机会成本。
Opportunity Cost: The value of the next best alternative that must be forgone when a choice is made. It is the true cost of any decision—what you give up to get something else.
机会成本：做出一种选择时所必须放弃的次优选项的价值。它是任何决策的真实成本——你为了得到某物而放弃的东西。
Marginal Analysis: A decision-making approach that compares the additional benefits of an action to its additional costs. Rational agents take an action if marginal benefit exceeds marginal cost.
边际分析：将一项行动的额外收益与额外成本进行比较的决策方法。理性行为人会在边际收益大于边际成本时采取行动。
Incentives: Rewards or penalties that influence people’s behavior and choices. Positive incentives encourage an action, while negative incentives discourage it.
激励：影响人们行为和选择的奖励或惩罚。正向激励鼓励某种行动，负向激励抑制某种行动。
2. Supply and Demand | 供给与需求
Law of Demand: Holding other factors constant, as the price of a good increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa. This inverse relationship is shown by a downward-sloping demand curve.
需求定律：在其他因素不变的情况下，商品价格上升，需求量下降，反之亦然。这种反比关系表现为一条向下倾斜的需求曲线。
Law of Supply: Holding other factors constant, as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied increases. This direct relationship results in an upward-sloping supply curve.
供给定律：在其他因素不变的情况下，商品价格上升，供给量增加。这种正比关系导致供给曲线向上倾斜。
Market Equilibrium: The point where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied at a given price. At equilibrium, there is no tendency for price to change.
市场均衡：在某一价格下需求量等于供给量的点。在均衡状态下，价格没有变动的趋势。
Shift vs. Movement: A movement along a curve occurs when only price changes. A shift of the entire curve happens when a non-price determinant (such as income, tastes, or input costs) changes.
移动与变动：沿曲线的移动仅由价格变化引起。整条曲线的位移则发生在非价格决定因素（如收入、偏好或投入成本）变化时。
3. Elasticity | 弹性
Price Elasticity of Demand (PED): Measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price. PED = percentage change in quantity demanded divided by percentage change in price. Demand is elastic if |PED| > 1, inelastic if |PED| < 1, and unit elastic if |PED| = 1.
需求的价格弹性（PED）：衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。PED = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 价格变化百分比。如果 |PED| > 1 则为富有弹性，|PED| < 1 为缺乏弹性，|PED| = 1 为单位弹性。
Income Elasticity of Demand (YED): Measures how quantity demanded responds to a change in consumer income. YED = percentage change in quantity demanded divided by percentage change in income. Normal goods have YED > 0; inferior goods have YED < 0.
需求的收入弹性（YED）：衡量需求量对消费者收入变化的反应程度。YED = 需求量变化百分比 ÷ 收入变化百分比。正常品的 YED > 0，低档品的 YED < 0。
Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand (XED): Measures the responsiveness of demand for one good to a change in the price of another. XED = percentage change in quantity demanded of good A divided by percentage change in price of good B. Substitutes have XED > 0; complements have XED < 0.
需求的交叉价格弹性（XED）：衡量一种商品的需求对另一种商品价格变化的反应程度。XED = A商品需求量变化百分比 ÷ B商品价格变化百分比。替代品的 XED > 0，互补品的 XED < 0。
Price Elasticity of Supply (PES): Measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price. PES = percentage change in quantity supplied divided by percentage change in price. It is positive and depends on production flexibility and time horizon.
供给的价格弹性（PES）：衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度。PES = 供给量变化百分比 ÷ 价格变化百分比。弹性为正值，取决于生产灵活性和时间跨度。
4. Consumer and Producer Surplus | 消费者与生产者剩余
Consumer Surplus: The difference between the maximum price consumers are willing to pay and the market price they actually pay. It is the area below the demand curve and above the price line, representing net benefit to buyers.
消费者剩余：消费者愿意支付的最高价格与实际支付的市场价格之间的差额。它是需求曲线以下、价格线以上的区域，代表买方的净收益。
Producer Surplus: The difference between the market price producers receive and the minimum price they are willing to accept. It is the area above the supply curve and below the price line, representing net benefit to sellers.
生产者剩余：生产者获得的市场价格与其愿意接受的最低价格之间的差额。它是供给曲线以上、价格线以下的区域，代表卖方的净收益。
Total Surplus: The sum of consumer surplus and producer surplus. It measures the overall welfare or economic well-being created by market transactions. Equilibrium maximizes total surplus in a free market.
总剩余：消费者剩余与生产者剩余之和。它衡量市场交易创造的总体福利或经济福祉。在自由市场中，均衡使总剩余最大化。
Deadweight Loss: The loss of total surplus that occurs when the market is not in competitive equilibrium, often due to price controls, taxes, or monopoly. It represents forgone transactions that could have benefited both sides.
无谓损失：当市场未处于竞争均衡时发生的总剩余损失，通常由价格管制、税收或垄断引起。它代表着本可使双方受益却被放弃的交易。
5. Consumer Choice Theory | 消费者选择理论
Utility: A measure of satisfaction or happiness a consumer derives from consuming goods and services. Total utility is the overall satisfaction; marginal utility is the additional satisfaction from consuming one more unit.
效用：消费者从消费商品和服务中获得的满足感或幸福感的度量。总效用是总体满足程度，边际效用是额外消费一单位所带来的新增满足感。
Diminishing Marginal Utility: The principle that as a consumer increases consumption of a good, the marginal utility from each additional unit eventually decreases. This explains why demand curves slope downward.
边际效用递减：随着消费者增加对一种商品的消费，每额外一单位带来的边际效用最终会下降的规律。这解释了需求曲线向下倾斜的原因。
Budget Constraint: The limit on consumption bundles, defined by the consumer’s income and the prices of goods. It shows all affordable combinations; slope equals the negative price ratio of the two goods.
预算约束：由消费者的收入和商品价格决定的消费组合限制。它显示所有可负担的组合，斜率等于两种商品价格比的负数。
Indifference Curve: A curve showing combinations of two goods that give the consumer equal satisfaction. Higher curves represent higher utility levels. They are downward sloping and convex to the origin due to diminishing marginal rate of substitution.
无差异曲线：表示能给消费者带来同等满足程度的两种商品组合的曲线。越高的曲线代表越高的效用水平。由于边际替代率递减，曲线向下倾斜并向原点凸出。
6. Production and Costs | 生产与成本
Production Function: The relationship between inputs (labor, capital) and the quantity of output produced in a given period. It shows the technological possibilities for a firm.
生产函数：投入（劳动、资本）与一定时期内产出量之间的关系。它显示企业的技术可能性边界。
Marginal Product (MP): The additional output produced by employing one more unit of a variable input, holding other inputs constant. It is calculated as change in total product divided by change in input quantity.
边际产量（MP）：在其他投入不变的情况下，多使用一单位可变投入所增加的产出。计算方法为总产出变化量除以投入变化量。
Diminishing Marginal Returns: The short-run phenomenon where, as more units of a variable input are added to fixed inputs, the marginal product of the variable input eventually declines.
边际报酬递减：一种短期现象，即当可变投入不断加到固定投入上时，该可变投入的边际产量最终会下降。
Fixed Cost (FC) and Variable Cost (VC): Fixed costs do not vary with output in the short run (e.g., rent), while variable costs change with output level (e.g., labor, raw materials). Total Cost (TC) = FC + VC.
固定成本（FC）与可变成本（VC）：固定成本在短期内不随产量变化（如租金），可变成本则随产量水平变化（如劳动、原材料）。总成本（TC）= FC + VC。
Average Total Cost (ATC): Total cost per unit of output, calculated as TC divided by quantity (Q). ATC = AFC + AVC. It is typically U-shaped due to spreading of fixed costs and diminishing returns.
平均总成本（ATC）：每单位产出的总成本，用 TC 除以产量 Q 计算。ATC = AFC + AVC。由于固定成本分摊和报酬递减，曲线通常呈 U 形。
Marginal Cost (MC): The additional cost of producing one more unit of output. MC = change in TC divided by change in Q. MC curve intersects ATC and AVC at their minimum points.
边际成本（MC）：多生产一单位产出所增加的成本。MC = 总成本变化量 ÷ 产量变化量。MC曲线与ATC曲线和AVC曲线在其最低点相交。
Economies of Scale: The long-run condition where increasing the scale of production leads to lower average total costs. This can result from specialization, bulk purchasing, or technological advantages.
规模经济：长期中扩大生产规模导致平均总成本下降的状况。可能源于专业化、批量采购或技术优势。
7. Market Structures: Perfect Competition | 市场结构：完全竞争
Perfect Competition: A market structure characterized by many small firms, identical products, free entry and exit, and perfect information. Firms are price takers: they cannot influence the market price and must accept it.
完全竞争：一种市场结构，特征为众多小型企业、同质产品、自由进入和退出以及完全信息。企业是价格接受者：它们无法影响市场价格，只能接受。
Profit Maximization Rule: A firm maximizes profit by producing the quantity where marginal revenue equals marginal cost (MR = MC). In perfect competition, price = MR, so the rule becomes P = MC.
利润最大化原则：企业通过生产边际收益等于边际成本（MR = MC）的产量来实现利润最大化。在完全竞争中，价格 = MR，因此规则变为 P = MC。
Shutdown Point: In the short run, a firm should continue operating if price covers average variable cost (P ≥ AVC). If P < AVC, the firm minimizes losses by shutting down. The shutdown point is the minimum of AVC.
停业点：在短期，如果价格能覆盖平均可变成本（P ≥ AVC），企业应继续经营。如果 P < AVC，企业通过停业来最小化损失。停业点是AVC的最低点。
Long-Run Equilibrium: In perfect competition, economic profits attract entry, shifting supply right and lowering price until firms earn zero economic profit (P = minimum ATC). Allocative and productive efficiency are achieved: P = MC and P = min ATC.
长期均衡：在完全竞争中，经济利润吸引新企业进入，使供给曲线右移、价格下降，直到企业获得零经济利润（P = ATC最低点）。此时达到配置效率和生产效率：P = MC 且 P = min ATC。
8. Market Structures: Monopoly | 市场结构：垄断
Monopoly: A market structure with a single seller of a unique product, high barriers to entry, and significant price-setting power. The monopolist is a price maker and faces a downward-sloping demand curve.
垄断：一种市场结构，只有单一卖家销售独特产品，进入壁垒很高，拥有显著的定价能力。垄断者是价格制定者，面临向下倾斜的需求曲线。
Barriers to Entry: Factors that prevent new firms from entering a market, such as legal restrictions (patents, licenses), control of essential resources, and economies of scale leading to natural monopoly.
进入壁垒：阻止新企业进入市场的因素，例如法律限制（专利、许可证）、对关键资源的控制以及导致自然垄断的规模经济。
Deadweight Loss of Monopoly: Since a monopolist produces where MR = MC but charges a price above MC, output is lower and price is higher than in perfect competition. This creates a deadweight loss, reducing total surplus.
垄断的无谓损失：由于垄断者在 MR = MC 处生产，但定价高于 MC，产出低于完全竞争水平，价格更高。这造成了无谓损失，减少了总剩余。
Price Discrimination: The practice of charging different prices to different consumers for the same product, not based on cost differences. Perfect price discrimination converts all consumer surplus into producer surplus and eliminates deadweight loss.
价格歧视：对同一种产品向不同消费者收取不同价格的做法，并非基于成本差异。完全价格歧视将全部消费者剩余转化为生产者剩余，并消除了无谓损失。
9. Market Structures: Imperfect Competition | 市场结构：不完全竞争
Monopolistic Competition: A market structure with many firms, differentiated products, and few barriers to entry. Firms have some price-setting power and can earn short-run profits, but long-run competition drives economic profit to zero due to entry.
垄断竞争：一种存在众多企业、产品差异化且进入壁垒较低的市场结构。企业具有一定的定价权，可在短期获利，但长期中因新企业进入，经济利润趋于零。
Oligopoly: A market dominated by a few large firms, with significant barriers to entry. Firms are interdependent; the actions of one firm affect rivals. Products may be identical or differentiated.
寡头垄断：由少数几家大企业主导的市场，进入壁垒较高。企业之间相互依赖，一家企业的行为会影响竞争对手。产品可以是同质的或有差异的。
Game Theory: A framework for analyzing strategic interactions among firms where each player’s payoff depends on the actions of others. It is widely used to study oligopoly behavior and collusion.
博弈论：分析企业之间战略互动的一种框架，每个参与方的收益取决于其他参与方的行为。它被广泛用于研究寡头行为和合谋。
Nash Equilibrium: A situation in which each player chooses the best strategy given the strategies chosen by others, and no player has an incentive to deviate unilaterally. In a prisoner’s dilemma, the Nash equilibrium is often worse for all than cooperation.
纳什均衡：在给定其他参与者策略的情况下，每个参与者都选择了最佳策略，且没有参与者有单方面偏离动机的状态。在囚徒困境中，纳什均衡对各方来说通常比合作更差。
10. Factor Markets | 要素市场
Derived Demand: The demand for a factor of production is derived from the demand for the goods and services it helps produce. For example, demand for construction workers depends on demand for new housing.
派生需求：对生产要素的需求源自对其所生产商品和服务的需求。例如，对建筑工人的需求取决于对新住房的需求。
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP): The additional revenue generated by employing one more unit of a factor. MRP = marginal product of the factor multiplied by marginal revenue. In competitive output markets, MRP = MP × P.
边际收益产品（MRP）：多雇用一单位要素所带来的额外收益。MRP = 该要素的边际产量乘以边际收益。在竞争性产品市场中，MRP = MP × P。
Marginal Factor Cost (MFC): The additional cost of hiring one more unit of a factor. In a perfectly competitive labor market, MFC equals the wage rate. A firm hires labor up to the point where MRP = MFC to maximize profit.
边际要素成本（MFC）：多雇用一单位要素的额外成本。在完全竞争的劳动力市场中，MFC 等于工资率。企业雇用劳动直到 MRP = MFC 以实现利润最大化。
Least-Cost Combination: A firm minimizes the total cost of producing a given output by employing factors such that the marginal product per dollar spent is equal across all inputs: MPₔ/Pₔ = MPₐ/Pₐ = …
最低成本组合：企业通过使各要素的每元支出边际产量相等来实现给定产量的总成本最小化：MPₔ/Pₔ = MPₐ/Pₐ = …
11. Market Failure and Government Intervention | 市场失灵与政府干预
Externality: A side effect of an economic activity that affects third parties not directly involved. Negative externalities (e.g., pollution) cause overproduction; positive externalities (e.g., education) cause underproduction when left to the free market.
外部性：一项经济活动对未直接参与的第三方产生的附带影响。负外部性（如污染）导致过度生产，正外部性（如教育）在自由市场下导致生产不足。
Public Goods: Goods that are non-rivalrous (one person’s consumption does not reduce availability for others) and non-excludable (no one can be effectively excluded from use). Examples include national defense and street lighting.
公共物品：具有非竞争性（一人消费不减少他人可用量）和非排他性（无法有效排除任何人使用）的物品。例如国防和路灯。
Free-Rider Problem: Because public goods are non-excludable, individuals have an incentive to consume them without paying, leading to underprovision by the private market. Government provision or subsidies can solve this problem.
搭便车问题：由于公共物品的非排他性，个人有动机在不付费的情况下消费，导致私人市场供给不足。政府提供或补贴可以解决这一问题。
Government Intervention: Policies to correct market failures include per-unit taxes to internalize negative externalities, subsidies to encourage positive externalities, price ceilings and floors to protect consumers or producers, and regulation. However, intervention can also create deadweight loss if not designed properly.
政府干预：纠正市场失灵的政策包括对每单位产品征税以内部化负外部性、提供补贴以鼓励正外部性、实施价格上限和下限以保护消费者或生产者，以及监管。然而，如果设计不当，干预也可能造成无谓损失。
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