📚 AP Microeconomics Key Terms Glossary | AP微观经济重点术语汇编
This glossary collects the most essential terms you will encounter in AP Microeconomics. Mastering these concepts is crucial for understanding how individuals, firms, and governments make choices under scarcity. Each term is defined clearly in English first, followed by a Chinese translation and explanation, so you can study efficiently and build a solid foundation for the exam.
本汇编涵盖了AP微观经济学中最关键的术语。掌握这些概念对于理解个人、企业和政府在稀缺条件下如何做出选择至关重要。每个术语先用英文给出明确定义，随后配以中文翻译和解释，帮助你高效学习，为考试打下坚实基础。
1. Basic Economic Concepts | 基本经济概念
Scarcity: Scarcity is the fundamental economic problem of having limited productive resources to satisfy unlimited human wants and needs. Because resources are finite, society must make choices about how to allocate them efficiently, giving rise to opportunity cost.
稀缺性：稀缺性是指有限的生产资源无法满足人类无限欲望和需求的基本经济问题。由于资源是有限的，社会必须就如何有效分配资源做出选择，由此产生了机会成本。
Opportunity Cost: The opportunity cost of any choice is the value of the next best alternative that is forgone when a decision is made. It includes both explicit costs (money spent) and implicit costs (the value of time, resources, or other sacrificed options).
机会成本：任何选择的机会成本都是为了做出该决策而放弃的次优选择的价值。它包括显性成本（花费的金钱）和隐性成本（放弃的时间、资源或其他选项的价值）。
Production Possibilities Curve (PPC): A graph that shows the maximum combinations of two goods an economy can produce given its resources and technology. Points on the curve are efficient, points inside are inefficient, and points outside are currently unattainable. The slope represents the opportunity cost of producing one more unit of the good on the horizontal axis.
生产可能性曲线（PPC）：描绘一个经济体在给定资源和技术下能够生产的两种商品最大组合的图形。曲线上的点是有效率的，曲线内的点是无效率的，曲线外的点在当前无法达到。曲线的斜率表示多生产一单位横轴商品的机会成本。
Marginal Analysis: The process of comparing the additional benefits of an action to its additional costs. Rational decision-makers take an action only if the marginal benefit exceeds the marginal cost. This principle underpins optimal consumption and production decisions.
边际分析：比较一项行动的额外收益与额外成本的过程。理性决策者只有在边际收益大于边际成本时才会采取该行动。这一原理是消费与生产最优决策的基础。
2. Supply and Demand | 供给与需求
Law of Demand: Holding other factors constant, as the price of a good increases, the quantity demanded decreases, and vice versa. This inverse relationship is driven by the substitution effect and the income effect.
需求定律：在其他条件不变的情况下，商品价格上升，需求量下降；价格下降，需求量上升。这种反向关系由替代效应和收入效应共同促成。
Law of Supply: Holding other factors constant, as the price of a good increases, the quantity supplied increases, and vice versa. Producers are willing to offer more at higher prices because higher prices typically increase profit margins.
供给定律：在其他条件不变的情况下，商品价格上升，供给量增加；价格下降，供给量减少。因为更高的价格通常会提高利润率，生产者愿意提供更多产品。
Market Equilibrium: The price at which the quantity demanded equals the quantity supplied. At equilibrium, there is no surplus or shortage, and the market clears. Any deviation leads to market forces pushing price back toward equilibrium.
市场均衡：需求量等于供给量时的价格。在均衡状态下，既没有过剩也没有短缺，市场出清。任何偏离都会导致市场力量推动价格重新回到均衡水平。
Shifts vs. Movements: A change in price causes a movement along the demand or supply curve (change in quantity demanded or supplied). A change in a non-price determinant (income, preferences, input costs, technology, etc.) shifts the entire curve, indicating a change in demand or supply.
曲线的移动与点的移动：价格变化会导致沿需求曲线或供给曲线的移动（需求量或供给量的变动）。非价格决定因素（如收入、偏好、投入成本、技术等）的变化会使整条曲线发生位移，表明需求或供给本身发生了改变。
3. Elasticity | 弹性
Price Elasticity of Demand (PED): A measure of how responsive quantity demanded is to a change in price, calculated as the percentage change in quantity demanded divided by the percentage change in price. Demand is elastic if |PED| > 1, unit elastic if |PED| = 1, and inelastic if |PED| < 1.
需求的价格弹性（PED）：衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度，用需求量变动的百分比除以价格变动的百分比计算。如果 |PED| > 1，需求富有弹性；|PED| = 1，单位弹性；|PED| < 1，需求缺乏弹性。
Determinants of PED: Availability of close substitutes, proportion of income spent on the good, whether the good is a necessity or luxury, and the time period considered. Goods with many substitutes, large budget shares, and luxury status tend to have more elastic demand.
需求价格弹性的决定因素：相近替代品的可获得性、商品支出占收入的比例、商品是必需品还是奢侈品，以及考虑的时间周期。替代品多、占支出比例大、属于奢侈品的商品需求往往更富有弹性。
Income Elasticity of Demand: Measures how quantity demanded responds to changes in consumer income. Normal goods have positive income elasticity; inferior goods have negative income elasticity. Luxury goods have income elasticity greater than 1.
需求的收入弹性：衡量需求量对消费者收入变化的反应程度。正常品的收入弹性为正，低档品的收入弹性为负。奢侈品的收入弹性大于1。
Cross-Price Elasticity of Demand: Measures how the quantity demanded of one good responds to a change in the price of another good. It is positive for substitutes and negative for complements.
需求的交叉价格弹性：衡量一种商品的需求量对另一种商品价格变化的反应程度。替代品的交叉价格弹性为正，互补品为负。
Price Elasticity of Supply: Measures the responsiveness of quantity supplied to a change in price. Key determinants include time period and the flexibility of production. Supply is generally more elastic in the long run.
供给的价格弹性：衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度。关键决定因素包括时间周期和生产灵活性。长期中供给通常更具弹性。
4. Consumer Choice and Utility | 消费者选择与效用
Utility: A measure of the satisfaction or happiness a consumer derives from consuming goods and services. Total utility increases with consumption, but at a decreasing rate due to diminishing marginal utility.
效用：消费者从消费商品和服务中获得的满足感或幸福感的衡量。随着消费增加，总效用增加，但由于边际效用递减，增加的速度逐渐放缓。
Marginal Utility (MU): The additional utility gained from consuming one more unit of a good. The law of diminishing marginal utility states that as a person consumes additional units, the extra satisfaction from each successive unit declines.
边际效用（MU）：多消费一单位商品所带来的额外效用。边际效用递减规律指出，随着一个人消费更多单位的商品，每增加一单位所带来的额外满足感会逐渐减少。
Utility Maximization: A consumer with a given income maximizes total utility by allocating spending so that the marginal utility per dollar spent is equal across all goods. The formula is MUx/Px = MUy/Py. If these ratios are not equal, the consumer can increase utility by reallocating spending toward the good with the higher MU per dollar.
效用最大化：给定收入下，消费者通过使花在所有商品上的最后一元钱的边际效用相等来实现总效用最大化，公式为 MUx/Px = MUy/Py。如果这些比值不相等，消费者可以通过将支出重新分配到每元边际效用更高的商品上来增加效用。
5. Costs of Production | 生产成本
Fixed Costs (FC): Costs that do not change with the level of output in the short run, such as rent or insurance. Even if the firm produces zero output, fixed costs must be paid.
固定成本（FC）：短期内不随产量水平变化的成本，如租金或保险费。即使企业产量为零，也必须支付固定成本。
Variable Costs (VC): Costs that vary directly with the level of output, such as raw materials and hourly wages. As production increases, variable costs rise proportionally or at varying rates.
可变成本（VC）：直接随产量水平变化的成本，如原材料和小时工资。随着产量的增加，可变成本会按比例或以不同速率上升。
Marginal Cost (MC): The additional total cost incurred from producing one more unit of output. MC typically first falls then rises, creating a U-shaped curve due to the law of diminishing returns.
边际成本（MC）：多生产一单位产量所带来的额外总成本。因为收益递减规律，边际成本通常先下降后上升，形成U形曲线。
Economies of Scale: Reductions in long-run average total cost as a firm increases its scale of production. Reasons include specialization of labor, bulk purchasing, and more efficient technology. Diseconomies of scale occur when average total cost rises as the firm becomes too large and management becomes more complex.
规模经济：随着企业生产规模的扩大，长期平均总成本下降。原因包括劳动专业化、大批量采购和更高效的技术。规模不经济指当企业规模过大、管理趋于复杂时，平均总成本开始上升。
6. Perfect Competition | 完全竞争
Characteristics: Perfect competition features many small firms, identical products, perfect information, no barriers to entry or exit, and firms being price takers. The demand curve faced by an individual firm is perfectly elastic at the market price.
特征：完全竞争的特征包括大量小型企业、同质产品、完全信息、无进入或退出壁垒，以及企业是价格接受者。单个企业面临的需求曲线在市场价格水平上完全弹性。
Profit Maximization Rule: Firms in all market structures maximize profit by producing the output level where marginal revenue (MR) equals marginal cost (MC). In perfect competition, MR equals the market price, so the rule becomes price = MC.
利润最大化法则：所有市场结构下的企业都通过将产量确定在边际收益（MR）等于边际成本（MC）的水平上来实现利润最大化。在完全竞争中，边际收益等于市场价格，因此法则变为价格等于边际成本。
Shutdown Point: In the short run, if price falls below average variable cost (AVC) at all output levels, the firm will shut down to minimize losses, as it would lose more by continuing to operate. If price is above AVC but below average total cost, it will continue to produce to cover part of its fixed costs.
停产点：在短期，如果价格在所有产量水平上都低于平均可变成本（AVC），企业将停止生产以最小化损失，因为继续经营会亏损更多。如果价格高于AVC但低于平均总成本，企业会继续生产以弥补部分固定成本。
7. Monopoly | 垄断
Barriers to Entry: Monopolies exist because of high barriers that prevent other firms from entering the market. These barriers include legal protections (patents, copyrights), control of a key resource, large economies of scale, and government licenses.
进入壁垒：垄断的存在是由于高壁垒阻止其他企业进入市场。这些壁垒包括法律保护（专利、版权）、对关键资源的控制、巨大的规模经济和政府许可。
Revenue and Demand: A monopolist faces a downward-sloping market demand curve. To sell an additional unit, it must lower the price on all previous units, so marginal revenue lies below the demand curve. The monopolist maximizes profit where MR = MC but charges a price higher than MC, creating deadweight loss.
收益与需求：垄断者面临向下倾斜的市场需求曲线。为了多销售一单位，必须对所有之前的产品降价，因此边际收益位于需求曲线下方。垄断者在MR=MC处实现利润最大化，但收取的价格高于边际成本，造成无谓损失。
Price Discrimination: Occurs when a monopolist charges different prices to different consumers for the same product, based on their willingness to pay. Perfect price discrimination extracts all consumer surplus, turning it into producer surplus, and eliminates deadweight loss.
价格歧视：垄断者根据消费者的支付意愿对同一产品向不同消费者收取不同价格。完全价格歧视攫取了全部消费者剩余，将其转化为生产者剩余，并消除了无谓损失。
8. Monopolistic Competition and Oligopoly | 垄断竞争与寡头
Monopolistic Competition: A market structure with many firms, differentiated products, and relatively free entry and exit. In the short run, firms can earn positive economic profit, but in the long run, new entrants drive economic profit to zero. Firms produce with excess capacity and a markup over marginal cost.
垄断竞争：一种具有众多企业、产品差异化以及相对自由进出市场的市场结构。短期内企业可获得正的利润，但长期中新进入者会导致经济利润为零。企业以过剩产能生产，并在边际成本之上加价。
Oligopoly: A market dominated by a few large firms. Actions of any one firm affect the others, creating strategic interdependence. Collusion occurs when firms cooperate to act like a monopoly and maximize joint profits, but agreements are often unstable. The kinked demand curve model suggests prices may be sticky because firms expect rivals to match price cuts but not price increases.
寡头：由少数大企业主导的市场。任何一家企业的行为都会影响其他企业，形成战略性相互依赖。当企业合作像一个垄断者那样行动并最大化联合利润时，便出现合谋，但这种协议往往不稳定。弯折的需求曲线模型表明，由于企业预期对手会跟进降价但不会跟进涨价，价格可能具有黏性。
Game Theory and Nash Equilibrium: A tool to analyze strategic behavior in oligopoly. A Nash equilibrium occurs when each player chooses the best strategy given the strategies of others, and no one has an incentive to deviate unilaterally. The prisoner’s dilemma illustrates how individually rational decisions can lead to a collectively worse outcome.
博弈论与纳什均衡：分析寡头市场战略性行为的工具。当每个参与者根据其他人的策略选择了最优策略，且没有人有单方面偏离的动机时，就达到了纳什均衡。囚徒困境说明了个人理性决策如何导致集体结果更差。
9. Factor Markets | 要素市场
Derived Demand: The demand for a factor of production (labor, capital, land) is derived from the demand for the goods and services the factor helps produce. If the demand for a product increases, the demand for the resources used to make it will also tend to increase.
派生需求：对生产要素（劳动、资本、土地）的需求派生自对该要素所生产的商品和服务的需求。如果对一种产品的需求上升，那么对用于制造该产品的资源需求也会上升。
Marginal Revenue Product (MRP): The additional revenue a firm earns from employing one more unit of a factor. MRP = Marginal Product x Marginal Revenue. Profit-maximizing firms hire labor up to the point where MRP equals the wage (the marginal factor cost).
边际收益产品（MRP）：企业多雇佣一单位要素所带来的额外收益。MRP = 边际产量 × 边际收益。利润最大化企业会持续雇佣劳动，直到MRP等于工资率（即边际要素成本）。
Least-Cost Rule: When using multiple inputs, a firm minimizes the cost of producing a given output by allocating spending so that the marginal product per dollar spent is equal across all inputs: MPL/PL = MPK/PK.
最低成本法则：当使用多种投入时，企业通过使花在每种投入上的最后一元钱的边际产量相等来最小化生产给定产量的成本：MPL/PL = MPK/PK。
10. Market Failure and the Role of Government | 市场失灵与政府作用
Externalities: A cost or benefit that affects a third party not directly involved in the market transaction. Negative externalities (e.g., pollution) lead to overproduction because private cost is below social cost. Positive externalities (e.g., education) lead to underproduction because private benefit is below social benefit.
外部性：影响未直接参与市场交易的第三方的成本或收益。负外部性（如污染）因私人成本低于社会成本而导致过度生产。正外部性（如教育）因私人收益低于社会收益而导致生产不足。
Public Goods: Goods that are non-rivalrous (one person’s consumption does not reduce availability to others) and non-excludable (it is impossible to prevent non-payers from consuming them). National defense and streetlights are classic examples. The free-rider problem causes private markets to underprovide public goods, justifying government provision.
公共物品：具有非竞争性（一个人的消费不会减少其他人的可得量）和非排他性（无法阻止不付费者消费）的物品。国防和路灯是典型的例子。搭便车问题导致私人市场供给不足，因此需要政府提供。
Government Interventions: To correct market failures, governments can impose Pigouvian taxes on activities generating negative externalities, provide subsidies for activities with positive externalities, set quantity regulations, or establish tradable pollution permits. These policies aim to align private incentives with social optimum.
政府干预：为纠正市场失灵，政府可以对产生负外部性的活动征收庇古税，为有正外部性的活动提供补贴，设定数量管制，或建立可交易的污染许可证。这些政策旨在使私人激励与社会最优保持一致。
Lorenz Curve and Gini Coefficient: The Lorenz curve shows the cumulative share of income earned by different segments of the population. The Gini coefficient is a numerical index between 0 (perfect equality) and 1 (perfect inequality) derived from the area between the line of equality and the Lorenz curve.
洛伦兹曲线与基尼系数：洛伦兹曲线显示了不同人口阶层累积的收入份额。基尼系数是一个介于0（完全平等）和1（完全不平等）之间的数值指数，由平等线与洛伦兹曲线之间的面积得出。
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