📚 Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Guide for Year 7 AQA Psychology | 七年级AQA心理学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your Year 7 AQA Psychology quick-reference handbook. This guide gathers the essential formulas and key theorems you will encounter, from calculating the mean to understanding memory models and social influence. Use these pages to revise, check your understanding, and build confidence before quizzes and end-of-topic tests.
欢迎使用七年级 AQA 心理学速查手册。本手册汇集了你将遇到的核心公式与关键定理，从计算平均数到理解记忆模型和社会影响。你可以用这些页面进行复习、检查理解，并在小测验和单元测试前建立信心。
1. Mean, Median, Mode and Range | 平均数、中位数、众数和范围
Descriptive statistics help us summarise data from experiments and surveys. The mean is the arithmetic average: add up all the scores and divide by the number of scores. The median is the middle value when all scores are arranged from smallest to largest. The mode is the value that appears most often. The range tells us about the spread of data and is simply the highest score minus the lowest score.
描述统计帮助我们总结实验和调查中的数据。平均数就是算术平均值：将所有分数相加，再除以分数的个数。中位数是所有分数按从小到大排列后中间的那个值。众数是出现次数最多的值。范围告诉我们数据的分散程度，它只是最高分减去最低分。
Mean = Σx ÷ N
平均数 = 分数总和 ÷ 数据个数
Range = Highest Score − Lowest Score
范围 = 最高分 − 最低分
The mean is sensitive to extreme values (outliers), whereas the median is more robust. Psychologists often report the mean and range together, or the median if the data is skewed.
平均数对极端值（异常值）很敏感，而中位数更稳健。心理学家通常同时报告平均数和范围，如果数据偏斜则报告中位数。
2. Percentage Change Formula | 百分比变化公式
In psychological research we sometimes compare a score before and after an intervention, or measure the difference between an experimental group and a control group. Percentage change expresses that difference as a proportion of the original amount, making comparisons fair and easy to interpret.
在心理学研究中，我们有时会比较干预前后的分数，或者测量实验组与控制组之间的差异。百分比变化将这种差异表示为原始数量的比例，使得比较公平且易于理解。
Percentage Change = (Difference ÷ Original Value) × 100
百分比变化 = (差值 ÷ 原始值) × 100
For example, if a memory test score increases from 12 to 15 after using a mnemonic technique, the difference is 3, the original value is 12, so the percentage change is (3 ÷ 12) × 100 = 25% improvement.
例如，如果使用记忆术之后，记忆测试分数从12提高到15，差值是3，原始值是12，那么百分比变化就是 (3 ÷ 12) × 100 = 25%的提高。
3. Multi-Store Model of Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968) | 记忆的多重存储模型
Atkinson and Shiffrin proposed that human memory consists of three separate stores linked by processes of attention and rehearsal. Information flows from the environment into sensory memory, then – if attended to – into short-term memory (STM), and with enough rehearsal it may be encoded into long-term memory (LTM).
阿特金森和希夫林提出，人类记忆由三个独立的存储库组成，它们通过注意和复述过程连接起来。信息从环境流入感觉记忆，如果得到注意则进入短时记忆，再经过足够的复述，可能被编码进入长时记忆。
Sensory memory: very large capacity; duration less than 0.5 seconds for iconic (visual) and 2–3 seconds for echoic (auditory) storage; encoded in raw sensory form.
感觉记忆：容量极大；图像记忆持续时间不足0.5秒，声像记忆2–3秒；以原始感觉形式编码。
Short-term memory (STM): capacity 7 ± 2 items; duration about 18–30 seconds without rehearsal; primarily acoustically encoded.
短时记忆：容量为7 ± 2个项目；不进行复述的持续时间约为18–30秒；主要采用听觉编码。
Long-term memory (LTM): potentially unlimited capacity and duration; mainly semantically encoded (by meaning).
长时记忆：容量和持续时间可能无限；主要通过语义（意义）编码。
4. Serial Position Effect (Primacy & Recency) | 序列位置效应（首因与近因）
When we are asked to recall a list of words immediately after hearing them, we tend to remember the first few items (primacy effect) and the last few items (recency effect) better than those in the middle. Murdock (1962) demonstrated that primacy happens because early items receive more rehearsal and move into LTM, while recency happens because the last items are still in STM.
当我们听完一系列单词后立即回忆时，我们往往对开头几个词（首因效应）和结尾几个词（近因效应）的记忆比中间部分的更好。默多克（1962）证明，首因效应的出现是因为开头项目得到了更多复述并进入长时记忆，而近因效应则是因为结尾项目仍留在短时记忆中。
Serial Position Curve: Recall is highest for primacy (beginning) and recency (end) portions.
序列位置曲线：回忆成绩在首因（开头）和近因（结尾）部分最高。
This finding supports the distinction between STM and LTM. If recall is delayed by a distracting task, the recency effect disappears, but the primacy effect remains.
这一发现支持了短时记忆与长时记忆的区分。如果回忆被一项干扰任务延迟，近因效应就会消失，而首因效应仍然存在。
5. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Formula | 经典条件作用：巴甫洛夫公式
Classical conditioning is a form of learning by association. Pavlov’s dogs learnt to associate the sound of a bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus), eventually producing a conditioned response of salivation to the bell alone. The sequence can be summarised as follows.
经典条件作用是一种通过联想进行学习的形式。巴甫洛夫的狗学会了将铃声（中性刺激）与食物（无条件刺激）联系起来，最终只听到铃声就产生分泌唾液的条件反应。这一过程可总结如下。
Before conditioning: UCS (Food) → UCR (Salivation)
条件作用前：无条件刺激（食物） → 无条件反应（分泌唾液）
NS (Bell) → No salivation
中性刺激（铃声） → 无反应
During conditioning: NS (Bell) + UCS (Food) → UCR (Salivation)
条件作用期间：中性刺激（铃声） + 无条件刺激（食物） → 无条件反应（分泌唾液）
After conditioning: CS (Bell) → CR (Salivation)
条件作用后：条件刺激（铃声） → 条件反应（分泌唾液）
Key terms: UCS = unconditioned stimulus, UCR = unconditioned response, NS = neutral stimulus, CS = conditioned stimulus, CR = conditioned response. Extinction occurs when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.
关键术语：UCS 无条件刺激，UCR 无条件反应，NS 中性刺激，CS 条件刺激，CR 条件反应。当条件刺激多次单独呈现而不伴随无条件刺激时，便发生消退。
6. Operant Conditioning: Reinforcement and Punishment | 操作性条件作用：强化与惩罚
Operant conditioning, studied by B.F. Skinner, explains how consequences shape voluntary behaviour. Behaviours followed by desirable outcomes are likely to be repeated, while those followed by undesirable outcomes are less likely to be repeated. There are four main types of consequences.
由斯金纳研究的操作性条件作用解释了后果如何塑造自主行为。带来理想结果的行为会被重复，而带来不理想结果的行为则不太可能被重复。后果主要有四种类型。
Positive reinforcement: adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour (e.g., giving praise). Negative reinforcement: removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behaviour (e.g., taking away a boring task). Positive punishment: adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour (e.g., giving a detention). Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behaviour (e.g., taking away screen time).
正强化：增加一个愉快刺激以增强行为（例如给予表扬）。负强化：移除一个不愉快刺激以增强行为（例如免去一项无聊的任务）。正惩罚：增加一个不愉快刺激以减少行为（例如给予留堂）。负惩罚：移除一个愉快刺激以减少行为（例如减少屏幕时间）。
Psychologists often apply reinforcement in therapies and classrooms to encourage adaptive behaviours. Punishment can be effective but may have side effects such as fear or aggression.
心理学家常在治疗和课堂中应用强化来鼓励适应性行为。惩罚可能有效，但也可能带来恐惧或攻击等副作用。
7. Asch’s Conformity Study Variables | 阿希从众研究变量
Solomon Asch (1951) investigated whether people would conform to an obviously incorrect group judgement in a line-matching task. About 37% of participants conformed on critical trials. Three key variables were found to influence the level of conformity.
所罗门·阿希（1951）研究了在线段匹配任务中，人们是否会屈从于明显错误的小组判断。在关键实验回合中，约有37%的参与者表现出从众行为。研究发现有三个关键变量影响了从众的程度。
Group size: conformity increased as the number of confederates rose, but only up to about 3–4 people; beyond that, the effect levelled off.
小组规模：从众程度随着假被试人数的增加而提高，但大约到3–4人以后，效果不再明显增加。
Unanimity: if one other person gave the correct answer (a dissenting partner), conformity dropped sharply, even if that partner did not agree with the real participant.
一致性：如果小组中有一人给出正确答案（分歧伙伴），从众率便大幅下降，即使该伙伴并不同意真实参与者的答案。
Task difficulty: when the lines were made more similar and the task became harder, conformity increased because people felt more uncertain.
任务难度：当线条变得更相似、任务难度加大时，从众程度上升，因为人们感到更不确定。
8. Milgram’s Obedience: Key Factors | 米尔格拉姆服从实验关键因素
Stanley Milgram (1963) studied obedience to authority by asking participants to deliver increasingly strong electric shocks to a learner. In the original study, 65% of participants went up to the maximum 450-volt level. Several situational factors were shown to affect obedience rates.
斯坦利·米尔格拉姆（1963）让参与者对学习者施加逐渐增强的电击，以此研究对权威的服从。在最初的研究中，65%的参与者一直执行到最高的450伏电击。若干情境因素被证明会影响服从率。
Proximity of the authority figure: when the experimenter gave orders over the phone instead of being in the same room, obedience dropped to 20.5%.
权威人物的接近程度：当主试通过电话下达命令而非在同一房间内时，服从率降至20.5%。
Proximity of the victim: when the learner was in the same room and the participant had to force his hand onto a shock plate, obedience fell to 30%.
受害者的接近程度：当学习者在同一房间内，且参与者必须将他的手按在电击板上时，服从率降至30%。
Peer support: when two other confederate teachers refused to continue, only 10% of real participants remained fully obedient.
同伴支持：当另外两名假扮的教师拒绝继续时，只有10%的真实参与者完全服从。
9. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget believed that children’s thinking develops through four distinct stages, each characterised by a different kind of logic. Understanding these stages helps psychologists explain how reasoning abilities change with age.
让·皮亚杰认为，儿童的思维发展会经历四个不同的阶段，每个阶段都以一种独特的逻辑为特征。了解这些阶段有助于心理学家解释推理能力如何随年龄变化。
Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years): infants learn through senses and actions; they develop object permanence – knowing objects exist when out of sight.
感觉运动阶段（0–2岁）：婴儿通过感觉和动作来学习；他们发展出客体永久性，即知道物体即使看不见也依然存在。
Pre-operational stage (2–7 years): children use symbols and language but are egocentric and struggle with conservation tasks.
前运算阶段（2–7岁）：儿童能使用符号和语言，但以自我为中心，并且在守恒任务上存在困难。
Concrete operational stage (7–11 years): logical thinking about concrete objects appears; conservation and reversibility are mastered.
具体运算阶段（7–11岁）：针对具体事物的逻辑思维出现；守恒和可逆性被掌握。
Formal operational stage (11+ years): abstract and hypothetical thinking develops; adolescents can reason about what might be, not just what is.
形式运算阶段（11岁以上）：抽象和假设性思维发展起来；青少年不仅能就现实进行推理，也能思考可能的情况。
10. Ainsworth’s Strange Situation & Attachment Types | 安斯沃思陌生情境与依恋类型
Mary Ainsworth (1978) designed the Strange Situation to observe attachment between an infant and their caregiver. The procedure involves a series of separations and reunions in a playroom. Based on the infant’s behaviour, three main attachment styles are identified.
玛丽·安斯沃思（1978）设计了陌生情境实验来观察婴儿与照料者之间的依恋关系。该程序包括在游戏室中进行的一系列分离和重聚。根据婴儿的行为，可识别出三种主要的依恋类型。
Secure attachment (Type B): the infant explores freely when the caregiver is present, shows distress during separation, and is easily comforted upon reunion. This is linked to sensitive, responsive parenting.
安全型依恋（B型）：母亲在场时婴儿自由探索，分离时表现出痛苦，重聚时容易得到安抚。这与敏感、及时回应的养育方式有关。
Insecure-avoidant attachment (Type A): the infant ignores the caregiver and shows little distress during separation or reunion. Caregivers may be rejecting or over-intrusive.
不安全—回避型依恋（A型）：婴儿忽视照料者，在分离和重聚时都表现出较少的痛苦。照料者可能表现出拒绝或过度侵扰。
Insecure-resistant attachment (Type C): the infant clings to the caregiver, becomes very distressed during separation, but resists comfort upon reunion. This is often associated with inconsistent caregiving.
不安全—反抗型依恋（C型）：婴儿紧紧依偎照料者，分离时极度痛苦，但在重聚时又抗拒安抚。这种类型通常与照料者的不一致反应有关。
11. Research Methods: IV, DV and Hypothesis | 研究方法：自变量、因变量与假设
In a psychology experiment, the independent variable (IV) is the factor the researcher manipulates or changes. The dependent variable (DV) is the factor that is measured; it is the outcome that may be affected by the IV. A hypothesis is a clear, testable prediction about the relationship between the IV and the DV.
在心理学实验中，自变量（IV）是研究者操纵或改变的因素。因变量（DV）是被测量的因素；它是可能受自变量影响的结果。假设是关于自变量与因变量之间关系的明确、可检验的预测。
Experiment = IV (manipulated) → DV (measured)
实验 = 自变量（被操纵） → 因变量（被测量）
For example, if you investigate whether background music affects recall, the IV is the presence or type of music, and the DV is the number of words correctly remembered. A directional hypothesis might state: “Listening to instrumental music will increase word recall compared to silence.”
例如，如果你研究背景音乐是否影响记忆，自变量是音乐的存在与否或类型，因变量是正确回忆出的单词数量。一个方向性假设可能是：“听器乐与安静环境相比会提高单词回忆的数量。”
12. Ethical Guidelines in Psychology Research | 心理学研究伦理准则
All psychological research must be conducted ethically to protect participants from harm. The British Psychological Society (BPS) provides a set of ethical principles that researchers must follow. Even Year 7 students designing mini-experiments should consider these rules.
所有心理学研究都必须合乎伦理地进行，以保护参与者免受伤害。英国心理学会（BPS）提供了一套研究者必须遵守的伦理原则。即使是七年级学生设计小型实验，也应考虑这些规则。
Informed consent: participants must know what the study involves and agree to take part. For under-16s, parental consent is required.
知情同意：参与者须知晓研究内容并同意参与。未满16岁者需获得家长同意。
Deception: misleading participants should be avoided; if necessary, it must be justified and followed by a full debrief.
欺骗：应避免误导参与者；如确有必要，必须有充分理由，并在事后进行充分的事后说明。
Right to withdraw: participants can leave the study at any time without penalty.
退出权利：参与者可以随时退出研究，且不受任何惩罚。
Confidentiality: personal data must be kept secure and not shared without permission.
保密：个人数据必须安全保存，未经许可不得泄露。
Protection from harm: researchers must minimise psychological and physical risk; participants should not leave the study feeling worse than when they arrived.
免受伤害：研究者必须将心理和身体风险降到最低；参与者离开研究时不应比刚到时感觉更糟。
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