📚 Year 7 CIE Psychology: Key Laws & Principles Quick Reference | Year 7 CIE 心理学：关键定律与原理速查手册
Welcome to the Year 7 CIE Psychology Quick Reference Handbook. This guide summarises the most important psychological laws, principles, and foundational theories you will encounter. Understanding these key concepts will help you analyse behaviour, memory, and learning throughout the course.
欢迎使用 Year 7 CIE 心理学速查手册。本指南总结了你将遇到的最重要的心理学定律、原理和基础理论。理解这些关键概念将有助于你在整个课程中分析行为、记忆和学习。
1. Weber’s Law | 韦伯定律
Weber’s Law is a fundamental principle of psychophysics that describes how we perceive differences between stimuli. It states that the just noticeable difference (JND) between two stimuli is proportional to the magnitude of the original stimulus. In other words, the stronger the initial stimulus, the larger the change must be for a person to notice it. The law is expressed as the following equation:
韦伯定律是心理物理学的一个基本原理，描述我们如何感知刺激之间的差异。该定律指出，两个刺激之间的最小可觉差（JND）与原始刺激的强度成正比。换句话说，初始刺激越强，需要的变化就越大，人们才能察觉。该定律用下列公式表示：
ΔI / I = k
其中 ΔI 是刺激强度的变化量，I 是原始强度，k 是韦伯分数（常数）。
For example, if you are holding a 100-gram weight, you would typically need an extra 2 grams to notice that it has become heavier. Here the Weber fraction for weight perception is approximately 0.02. This law helps explain why you might notice a small change in a quiet room but miss the same change in a noisy environment.
例如，如果你拿着一个 100 克的砝码，通常需要额外增加 2 克才能察觉它变重了。此时重量感知的韦伯分数大约为 0.02。这个定律有助于解释为什么你在安静的房间中能察觉到微小的变化，而在嘈杂的环境中却注意不到同样的变化。
2. Yerkes-Dodson Law | 耶克斯–多德森定律
The Yerkes-Dodson Law explains the relationship between arousal (stress or excitement) and performance. It states that performance improves as arousal increases, but only up to an optimal point. Beyond this point, further increases in arousal cause performance to decline. This pattern creates an inverted-U shaped curve on a graph. For simple or well-practised tasks, a relatively high level of arousal can be beneficial; for complex, new, or difficult tasks, a lower level of arousal is usually optimal.
耶克斯–多德森定律解释了唤醒水平（压力或兴奋程度）与表现之间的关系。该定律指出，表现会随着唤醒水平的提高而改善，但只到某个最佳点为止。超过这个点，唤醒水平继续升高反而会导致表现下降。这一规律在图上呈现为一个倒 U 形曲线。对于简单或熟练的任务，较高的唤醒水平可能是有益的；而对于复杂、新颖或困难的任务，较低的唤醒水平通常才是最佳状态。
Performance follows an inverted-U function of arousal.
表现与唤醒水平的关系遵循倒 U 形函数。
For instance, a moderate amount of anxiety before an exam can help you focus, but excessive panic may cause your mind to go blank. Similarly, an athlete might perform best when feeling ‘pumped up’ but not overwhelmingly tense.
例如，考前适度的焦虑能帮助你集中注意力，但过度恐慌可能会让你大脑一片空白。同样，运动员在感觉“兴奋起来”但没有过度紧张时往往表现最佳。
3. Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
The Ebbinghaus Forgetting Curve illustrates the decline of memory retention over time. German psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus discovered that memory loss is rapid shortly after learning and then levels off. He found that people can forget up to 40% of newly learned information within the first 20 minutes and about 60% after one day, unless the material is rehearsed or reviewed. The rate of forgetting can be approximated by an exponential decay function, often written as:
艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线展示了记忆保持随时间的衰减情况。德国心理学家赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯发现，记忆在学习后不久会快速流失，然后趋于平缓。他发现，如果不进行复述或复习，人们在学习后的 20 分钟内就可能忘记多达 40% 的新信息，一天后忘记约 60%。遗忘速率可以用一个指数衰减函数近似表示：
Retention ≈ e−t/τ
保留量 ≈ e−t/τ（其中 t 代表时间，τ 是时间常数）。
The practical implication is that spaced repetition and regular review are essential to transfer information from short-term memory into long-term memory. Cramming the night before a test is far less effective than revisiting the material multiple times over several days.
实际意义在于，间隔重复和定期复习对于将信息从短时记忆转入长时记忆至关重要。考试前一晚突击学习的效果远不如在几天内多次回顾材料来得有效。
4. Serial Position Effect | 系列位置效应
The serial position effect describes a pattern in free recall tasks where a person is most likely to remember the first and last items in a list. The tendency to recall the first items is called the primacy effect, which occurs because those items receive more rehearsal and have already entered long-term memory. The tendency to recall the last items is called the recency effect, as those words are still held in short-term memory. Items in the middle of a list are usually forgotten more often.
系列位置效应描述了在自由回忆任务中，一个人最有可能记住列表开头和末尾项目的现象。回忆开头项目的倾向称为首因效应，这是因为这些项目得到了更多的复述，并且已经进入长时记忆。回忆末尾项目的倾向称为近因效应，因为这些词语仍保存在短时记忆中。列表中间的项目通常更容易被遗忘。
A classic experiment by Murdock (1962) showed this U-shaped serial position curve. Teachers use this principle by placing essential learning objectives at the start and end of a lesson to increase retention.
默多克（1962）的经典实验展示了这一 U 形系列位置曲线。教师利用这一原理，将关键的学习目标安排在一节课的开头和结尾，以提高学生的记忆效果。
5. Miller’s Law (The Magical Number Seven) | 米勒定律（神奇数字 7）
Miller’s Law, proposed by cognitive psychologist George A. Miller in 1956, states that the average person can hold approximately seven (plus or minus two) items in their working memory at a time. This is often referred to as the ‘magical number 7 ± 2’. The ‘items’ can be simple digits, letters, words, or larger chunks of information. The concept of chunking allows us to overcome this limit by grouping smaller units into a meaningful whole.
米勒定律由认知心理学家乔治·A·米勒于 1956 年提出，认为普通人一次能在工作记忆中保持大约 7 个（正负 2 个）项目。这常被称为“神奇数字 7 ± 2”。“项目”可以是简单的数字、字母、单词，也可以是更大的信息组块。通过将较小单元组合成有意义的整体，我们可以突破这一限制，这就是组块的概念。
Working Memory Capacity ≈ 7 ± 2 chunks
工作记忆容量 ≈ 7 ± 2 个组块。
For instance, a phone number like ‘07943258163’ is difficult to remember as 11 separate digits, but it becomes easier when chunked as ‘079 4325 8163’. Similarly, a chess master remembers board configurations by chunking pieces into familiar patterns.
例如，像“07943258163”这样的电话号码，若当作 11 个孤立的数字很难记住，但如果按“079 4325 8163”分组，就更容易记住。同样，国际象棋大师通过把棋子组合成熟悉的模式来记忆棋盘布局。
6. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning | 巴甫洛夫的经典条件作用
Classical conditioning, discovered by Ivan Pavlov, is a learning process in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and eventually triggers a similar response. Before conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) naturally elicits an unconditioned response (UCR). During conditioning, a neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the UCS. After conditioning, the previously neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) that elicits a conditioned response (CR). The process can be summarised as:
经典条件作用由伊万·巴甫洛夫发现，是一种学习过程：一个中性刺激与一个有意义的刺激产生联结，最终触发类似的反应。条件作用之前，无条件刺激（UCS）会自然引发无条件反应（UCR）。条件作用过程中，中性刺激（NS）反复与 UCS 配对。条件作用之后，先前的中性刺激变成了条件刺激（CS），能够引发条件反应（CR）。这一过程可以总结为：
Before: UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
During: NS (bell) + UCS (food) → UCR (salivation)
After: CS (bell) → CR (salivation)
条件作用前： UCS （食物） → UCR （唾液分泌）
条件作用中： NS （铃声） + UCS （食物） → UCR （唾液分泌）
条件作用后： CS （铃声） → CR （唾液分泌）
Pavlov’s famous experiment with dogs demonstrated that when a bell was rung just before presenting food, the dogs eventually began to salivate at the sound of the bell alone. Extinction and spontaneous recovery are further concepts that describe how conditioned responses weaken and re-emerge over time.
巴甫洛夫著名的狗实验表明，当在呈现食物之前摇响铃铛，狗最终只听到铃声就会分泌唾液。消退与自然恢复是进一步的概念，描述了条件反应如何随时间而减弱和重新出现。
7. Thorndike’s Law of Effect and Skinner’s Operant Conditioning | 桑代克效果律与斯金纳的操作条件作用
Edward Thorndike’s Law of Effect (1898) states that behaviours followed by pleasant consequences are more likely to be repeated, while behaviours followed by unpleasant consequences are less likely to be repeated. B.F. Skinner later expanded this idea into operant conditioning, where behaviour is shaped by reinforcement and punishment. Positive reinforcement adds a pleasant stimulus (e.g., praise), negative reinforcement removes an unpleasant stimulus (e.g., turning off a loud noise) – both increase the likelihood of a behaviour. Punishment, on the other hand, decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.
爱德华·桑代克的效果律（1898）指出，伴随着愉快后果的行为更有可能被重复，而伴随着不愉快后果的行为则不太可能被重复。B.F. 斯金纳后来将这一思想发展为操作条件作用，即行为通过强化和惩罚来塑造。正强化是增加一个愉快刺激（如表扬），负强化是移除一个不愉快刺激（如关掉嘈杂的声音）——两者都能增加行为发生的可能性。而惩罚则会降低行为发生的可能性。
Reinforcement (positive or negative) strengthens behaviour; Punishment weakens behaviour.
强化（正强化或负强化）增强行为；惩罚减弱行为。
Skinner used a ‘Skinner box’ to demonstrate how rats and pigeons could learn to press a lever for food pellets. Schedules of reinforcement, such as fixed-ratio or variable-interval, also influence how quickly a behaviour is acquired and how resistant it is to extinction.
斯金纳使用“斯金纳箱”展示了老鼠和鸽子如何学会按压杠杆以获取食物颗粒。强化程式，如固定比率或可变时距，也会影响行为习得的速度以及行为对消退的抵抗力。
8. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰的认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget’s theory of cognitive development describes how children’s thinking changes in four distinct stages. The sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years) involves learning through senses and actions; object permanence develops. The preoperational stage (2–7 years) features symbolic thinking but egocentrism and a lack of conservation. The concrete operational stage (7–11 years) brings logical thinking about concrete events and mastery of conservation. The formal operational stage (12 years and up) allows abstract reasoning and hypothetical thinking.
让·皮亚杰的认知发展理论描述了儿童思维如何在四个不同阶段发生变化。感知运动阶段（出生至约 2 岁）通过感官和行动学习，客体永久性在此阶段发展。前运算阶段（2–7 岁）以符号思维为特征，但存在自我中心和缺乏守恒概念。具体运算阶段（7–11 岁）带来针对具体事件的逻辑思维和对守恒的掌握。形式运算阶段（12 岁及以上）使人能够进行抽象推理和假设性思考。
Although not a strict mathematical law, Piaget’s stage sequence is a foundational ‘principle’ in developmental psychology, suggesting that children cannot skip stages and that later stages build upon earlier ones. His conservation tasks (liquid, number, mass) are classic demonstrations of cognitive readiness.
虽然皮亚杰的阶段序列并非严格的数学定律，但它是发展心理学中的一个基础“原理”，表明儿童无法跳过某个阶段，且后续阶段建立在前一阶段之上。他的守恒任务（液体、数量、质量）是评估认知准备状态的经典演示。
9. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs | 马斯洛需求层次理论
Abraham Maslow proposed a motivational theory in psychology represented as a five-level pyramid. From the bottom to the top, the needs are: physiological (food, water, warmth), safety (security, stability), love and belonging (friendship, intimacy), esteem (respect, achievement), and self-actualisation (fulfilling one’s potential). Maslow argued that lower-level needs must be at least partially satisfied before an individual can be motivated by higher-level needs.
亚伯拉罕·马斯洛在心理学中提出了一种以五层金字塔为模型的动机理论。从底部到顶部，需求依次为：生理需求（食物、水、温暖）、安全需求（安全感、稳定）、爱与归属需求（友谊、亲密）、尊重需求（尊重、成就）和自我实现需求（发挥个人潜能）。马斯洛认为，在更高层次的需求成为激励因素之前，较低层次的需求至少需要得到部分满足。
Motivation = f (unmet needs in the hierarchy)
动机 = 需求层次中尚未满足的需求的函数。
In practice, a student who is hungry or feels unsafe at school is unlikely to focus on academic achievement (esteem) or creative pursuits (self-actualisation). The hierarchy reminds educators and psychologists to address basic and psychological needs before expecting higher-order engagement.
在实践中，一个饥饿或在学校感到不安全的学生，不太可能专注于学业成就（尊重需求）或创造性追求（自我实现）。这个需求层次提醒教育者和心理学家，在期望高阶投入之前，应先解决基本和心理层面的需求。
10. Bystander Effect | 旁观者效应
The bystander effect is a social psychological phenomenon where individuals are less likely to offer help to a victim when other people are present. The main mechanisms are diffusion of responsibility (everyone assumes someone else will act) and pluralistic ignorance (observers look to others’ reactions to judge whether help is needed). The more bystanders present, the less personal responsibility each individual feels, and the longer it takes for anyone to help.
旁观者效应是一种社会心理现象：当有其他人在场时，个人向受害者提供帮助的可能性反而降低。主要的心理机制是责任扩散（每个人都假设别人会行动）和多数无知（观察者依据他人的反应来判断是否需要帮助）。旁观者越多，个人感受到的责任就越少，任何人提供帮助所花的时间也就越长。
The brutal murder of Kitty Genovese in 1964, which reportedly had 38 witnesses who did not intervene, sparked the initial research by Latané and Darley. Later studies found that in a group, only about 31% of participants intervened in an emergency, compared to 85% when alone. Knowing about this effect can encourage people to take personal responsibility in an emergency.
1964 年基蒂·吉诺维斯被残忍杀害的案件据称有 38 名目击者没有出手干预，这促使拉坦尼和达利展开了最初的研究。后续研究发现，在群体中只有约 31% 的参与者会在紧急情况下干预，而独自一人时这一比例高达 85%。了解这一效应可以鼓励人们在紧急情况下主动承担个人责任。
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