📚 Year 7 CIE Sociology: Key Concepts and Formulas Quick Reference | 7年级 CIE 社会学：关键概念与公式速查手册
Sociology is the systematic study of human society, social behaviour, and the structures that shape our lives. In Year 7 CIE Sociology, you will encounter key concepts, theoretical perspectives, and some simple formulas used in social research. This quick reference handbook brings together the essential ‘laws’ of sociologists and the most important formulas you need to memorise.
社会学是对人类社会、社会行为以及塑造我们生活的结构进行系统研究的学科。在 7 年级 CIE 社会学课程中，你会接触到关键概念、理论视角以及一些社会研究中使用的简单公式。这本速查手册汇集了社会学家的重要“定律”以及你需要记忆的最重要的公式。
1. Sociological Perspectives | 社会学视角
Sociologists use different theoretical lenses to explain how society works. The three main perspectives are functionalism, conflict theory, and symbolic interactionism.
社会学家使用不同的理论视角来解释社会如何运作。三大主要视角是功能论、冲突论和符号互动论。
Functionalism, associated with Émile Durkheim, views society as a system of interdependent parts that work together to maintain social order and stability, just like the organs in a body.
与涂尔干相关的功能论将社会视为一个由相互依存的部分组成的系统，这些部分共同作用以维持社会秩序和稳定，就像身体中的器官一样。
Conflict theory, inspired by Karl Marx, sees society as an arena of inequality that generates conflict and social change. It focuses on the struggle between the bourgeoisie (owners) and the proletariat (workers).
受马克思启发的冲突论将社会视为一个产生冲突和社会变革的不平等竞技场。它关注资产阶级（所有者）和无产阶级（工人）之间的斗争。
Symbolic interactionism, developed by George Herbert Mead, examines how people use symbols, language, and face-to-face interactions to create shared meanings and identities.
由乔治·赫伯特·米德发展的符号互动论研究人们如何使用符号、语言和面对面互动来创造共同的意义和身份。
2. Key Theorists and Their Contributions | 主要理论家及其贡献
Auguste Comte, the father of sociology, advocated for positivism – the idea that society can be studied scientifically using observation and data.
社会学之父奥古斯特·孔德倡导实证主义——即社会可以用观察和数据以科学方法进行研究的理念。
Karl Marx argued that economic forces drive history through class conflict. His theory predicts that the proletariat will eventually overthrow the capitalist system.
卡尔·马克思主张经济力量通过阶级冲突推动历史。他的理论预言无产阶级最终将推翻资本主义制度。
Max Weber introduced the concept of verstehen (empathetic understanding) and emphasised the role of rationalisation and bureaucracy in modern society.
马克斯·韦伯引入了“理解”概念（移情式理解），并强调了理性化和官僚制在现代社会中的作用。
Émile Durkheim studied social facts and the collective conscience. He used suicide statistics to show how social integration affects individual behaviour.
埃米尔·涂尔干研究了社会事实和集体意识。他利用自杀统计数据展示了社会整合如何影响个人行为。
3. Socialisation and Identity | 社会化与身份
Socialisation is the lifelong process by which individuals learn the norms, values, and roles of their society. It is divided into primary socialisation (family) and secondary socialisation (school, peers, media).
社会化是个体学习其社会规范、价值观和角色的终身过程。它分为初级社会化（家庭）和次级社会化（学校、同伴、媒体）。
Agents of socialisation are the people, groups, and institutions that shape our self-concept, emotions, attitudes, and behaviour.
社会化主体是塑造我们自我概念、情感、态度和行为的人、群体和机构。
Identity refers to how we see ourselves and how others see us. It can include personal identity, social identity, and cultural identity.
身份指我们如何看待自己以及他人如何看待我们。它可以包括个人身份、社会身份和文化身份。
Nature versus nurture: sociologists emphasise that human behaviour is largely shaped by nurture (social environment) rather than nature (biology).
先天与后天：社会学家强调人类行为主要由后天（社会环境）而非先天（生物学）塑造。
4. Culture, Norms, and Values | 文化、规范与价值观
Culture is the way of life of a group of people, including their language, beliefs, customs, and material objects.
文化是一个群体的生活方式，包括他们的语言、信仰、习俗和物质对象。
Norms are the unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society. Values are the shared standards of what is good, right, and desirable.
规范是一个群体或社会中认为可接受的行为的不成文规则。价值观是关于什么是好的、正确的和可取之物的共同标准。
Cultural universals are patterns or traits that are common to all human societies, such as family structures, rituals, and language.
文化共性是所有人类社会共有的模式或特征，如家庭结构、仪式和语言。
Subcultures are cultural groups within a larger culture, often having beliefs or interests at variance with those of the mainstream.
亚文化是较大文化中的文化群体，其信仰或兴趣往往与主流文化有所不同。
5. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Social stratification is a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy. It is based on factors such as class, status, and power.
社会分层是一个社会将人群类别按等级进行排序的系统。它基于阶级、地位和权力等因素。
Social inequality refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and rewards. Sociologists measure inequality using indicators like income, education, and occupation.
社会不平等指资源、机会和回报的不均等分配。社会学家使用收入、教育和职业等指标来衡量不平等。
Life chances, a term coined by Max Weber, describes the opportunities an individual has to improve their quality of life and achieve success.
生活机会，由马克斯·韦伯创造的一个术语，描述了个人改善其生活质量和获得成功的机会。
The Gini coefficient is a measure of income inequality within a country. It uses the formula:
基尼系数是衡量一国内部收入不平等的指标。它使用的公式如下：
G = A ÷ (A + B)
where A is the area between the Lorenz curve and the line of perfect equality, and B is the area under the Lorenz curve. The result ranges from 0 (perfect equality) to 1 (maximum inequality).
其中 A 是洛伦兹曲线与绝对平等线之间的面积，B 是洛伦兹曲线以下的面积。结果范围从 0（完全平等）到 1（最大不平等）。
6. Research Methods: The Basics | 研究方法基础
Sociologists use both quantitative methods (numerical data) and qualitative methods (non-numerical data such as words, images) to investigate social phenomena.
社会学家使用定量方法（数值数据）和定性方法（非数值数据，如文字、图像）来研究社会现象。
Primary data is collected first-hand by the researcher for a specific purpose. Examples include questionnaires, interviews, and observations.
一手数据由研究者为特定目的直接收集。例子包括问卷、访谈和观察。
Secondary data is information that already exists and was collected by someone else. Examples include official statistics, diaries, and historical documents.
二手数据是已经存在且由他人收集的信息。例子包括官方统计资料、日记和历史文献。
Validity refers to whether a study measures what it claims to measure. Reliability refers to the consistency of results if the research is repeated.
效度指一项研究是否测量了它所声称要测量的东西。信度指如果重复研究，结果的一致性。
7. Sampling Methods | 抽样方法
A sample is a smaller group selected from the research population. Sampling methods determine how representative the sample is.
样本是从研究总体中选取的一个较小群体。抽样方法决定了样本的代表性程度。
Random sampling gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected. It reduces bias.
随机抽样给予总体中每个成员同等的被选中机会。它减少了偏差。
Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups (strata) and then randomly samples from each subgroup in proportion to its size.
分层抽样将总体分为子群体（层），然后按比例从各层中随机抽样。
Quota sampling is a non-probability method where the researcher selects individuals based on specific characteristics to meet a quota.
配额抽样是一种非概率方法，研究者根据特定特征选择个体以满足配额要求。
Sample size matters. Larger samples tend to be more representative, but resources like time and money often limit the size.
样本量很重要。较大的样本往往更具代表性，但时间和金钱等资源通常限制其规模。
8. Ethical Principles in Research | 研究中的伦理原则
All sociological research must follow ethical guidelines to protect participants and maintain integrity.
所有社会学研究都必须遵循伦理准则，以保护参与者并保持诚信。
Informed consent: participants must be fully aware of the research aims, procedures, and their right to withdraw at any time.
知情同意：参与者必须充分了解研究目的、程序以及他们随时退出的权利。
Confidentiality and anonymity: researchers must protect participants’ identities and ensure that data cannot be traced back to individuals.
保密与匿名：研究者必须保护参与者的身份，并确保数据无法追溯到个人。
Avoiding harm: no research should cause physical, psychological, or emotional harm to participants. Deception should be avoided unless absolutely necessary and justified.
避免伤害：任何研究都不应对参与者造成身体、心理或情感伤害。除非绝对必要并合理解释，否则应避免欺骗。
9. Key Formulas for Quantitative Analysis | 定量分析关键公式
Sociologists often need to summarise numerical data. These basic formulas help in data analysis.
社会学家经常需要概括数值数据。这些基本公式有助于数据分析。
Percentage: To express a proportion out of 100.
百分比：用以表示每 100 的比例。
Percentage = (Part ÷ Whole) × 100%
Example: If 30 out of 120 students say they like sociology, the percentage is (30 ÷ 120) × 100% = 25%.
示例：若 120 名学生中有 30 人说喜欢社会学，百分比为（30 ÷ 120）× 100% = 25%。
Percentage change: Measures how much a value has increased or decreased relative to the original value.
百分比变化：衡量一个数值相对于原值增加或减少了多少。
Percentage Change = [(New Value – Old Value) ÷ Old Value] × 100%
Example: If the divorce rate rose from 4.2 to 5.6 per 1 000 people, the percentage change is [(5.6 – 4.2) ÷ 4.2] × 100% ≈ 33.3% increase.
示例：若离婚率从千分之 4.2 升至 5.6，百分比变化为 [(5.6 – 4.2) ÷ 4.2] × 100% ≈ 增加 33.3%。
Mean (average): The sum of all values divided by the number of values.
平均值：所有数值之和除以数值的个数。
Mean = (x₁ + x₂ + … + xₙ) ÷ n
Median: The middle value when data are arranged in order. Mode: The most frequently occurring value.
中位数：将数据按顺序排列后位于中间的值。众数：出现频率最高的值。
10. Understanding Correlation and Causation | 理解相关与因果
A correlation is a statistical relationship between two variables. However, correlation does not imply causation.
相关是两个变量之间的统计关系。然而，相关并不意味因果。
Positive correlation: as one variable increases, the other also increases (e.g., ice cream sales and drowning incidents). Negative correlation: as one increases, the other decreases (e.g., hours of TV watched and exam scores).
正相关：当一个变量增加时，另一个也增加（如冰淇淋销量与溺水事件）。负相关：当一个增加时，另一个减少（如看电视时间与考试成绩）。
Spurious correlation is when two variables appear to be related but are actually both influenced by a third factor (confounding variable). The classical example is the correlation between ice cream sales and drowning: both increase in summer.
虚假相关是指两个变量看似相关，但实际上都受到第三个因素（混杂变量）的影响。经典例子是冰淇淋销量与溺水的相关性：两者都在夏季增加。
To establish causation, researchers need to demonstrate that a change in one variable directly produces a change in another, ruling out other explanations.
要确立因果关系，研究者需要证明一个变量的变化直接导致另一个变量的变化，并排除其他解释。
11. Key Sociological Concepts Checklist | 关键社会学概念清单
Use this checklist to revise the most important terms for your Year 7 CIE Sociology exam.
使用此清单复习 7 年级 CIE 社会学考试中最重要的术语。
| English Term | 中文术语 | Brief Definition |
| Social structure | 社会结构 | The organised pattern of social relationships and institutions. |
| Social institution | 社会制度 | Established systems that meet society’s needs (e.g. family, education). |
| Anomie | 失范 | A state of normlessness where social norms break down (Durkheim). |
| Alienation | 异化 | Marx’s concept of workers feeling disconnected from their labour. |
| Meritocracy | 精英统治 | A system where rewards are based on ability and effort. |
| Patriarchy | 父权制 | A social system where men hold primary power. |
| Social mobility | 社会流动 | Movement of individuals or groups between social positions. |
| Norms | 规范 | Unwritten rules of behaviour in a society. |
| Values | 价值观 | Shared beliefs about what is good and desirable. |
12. Quick Review: How to Apply Concepts and Formulas | 快速复习：如何应用概念与公式
In the exam, you may be asked to interpret data or explain sociological ideas. Always link your answer to key concepts and use precise terminology.
在考试中，你可能被要求解释数据或说明社会学观点。始终将你的答案与关键概念联系起来，并使用准确的术语。
For data-based questions, identify the trend, calculate percentage change if needed, and suggest possible sociological explanations. Do not just describe; explain using theories.
对于基于数据的问题，要识别趋势，必要时计算百分比变化，并提出可能的社会学解释。不要仅仅描述；要用理论进行解释。
When comparing sociological perspectives, highlight their main focus (e.g., functionalism looks at stability, conflict theory looks at inequality). Use real-life examples where possible.
在比较社会学视角时，要突出它们的主要关注点（例如功能论关注稳定，冲突论关注不平等）。尽可能使用现实生活中的例子。
For short-answer questions on research methods, name the method, describe its strengths and weaknesses, and state whether it produces quantitative or qualitative data.
对于关于研究方法的简答题，要说出方法名称，描述其优缺点，并说明它产生的是定量还是定性数据。
Finally, always follow the chain of reasoning: from evidence to analysis to conclusion. This shows you can think like a sociologist.
最后，始终遵循推理链条：从证据到分析再到结论。这显示你能像社会学家一样思考。
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