📚 Year 7 SQA Psychology: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | Year 7 SQA 心理学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your quick-reference guide for Year 7 SQA Psychology. This handbook brings together the essential formulas, principles, and key theorems you will encounter – from simple statistical calculations to foundational theories of learning, memory, and development. Use it to consolidate your knowledge and check key facts quickly before tests.
欢迎使用 Year 7 SQA 心理学速查手册。本手册汇总了你将遇到的基本公式、原理和关键定理——从简单的统计计算到学习、记忆和发展的基础理论。用它来巩固知识，在测验前快速核对关键要点。
1. Mean, Median, and Mode | 平均数、中位数与众数
The three measures of central tendency help us summarise a set of data with a single value.
三种集中趋势测度帮助我们用单一数值概括一组数据。
Mean (平均数): The arithmetic average. Add all scores together and divide by the number of scores.
平均数：算术平均值。将所有分数相加，再除以分数的个数。
Mean = (x₁ + x₂ + … + xₙ) / n
平均数 = (x₁ + x₂ + … + xₙ) / n
Median (中位数): The middle value when data are ranked in order. If there are two middle values, the median is their average.
中位数：将数据按大小顺序排列后居中的数值。如果有两个中间值，则取它们的平均数。
Mode (众数): The most frequently occurring value. A data set can have no mode, one mode, or more than one mode.
众数：出现次数最多的数值。一组数据可能没有众数，有一个众数，或有多个众数。
2. Range and Simple Statistics | 全距与简单统计
The range is a simple measure of dispersion – it tells us how spread out the scores are.
全距是一种简单的离散量数——它告诉我们分数分布得有多开。
Range = Maximum value – Minimum value
全距 = 最大值 – 最小值
A larger range indicates greater variability, but the range is easily influenced by extreme values (outliers).
全距越大说明变异性越大，但全距很容易受极端值（异常值）影响。
We often express parts of data as percentages to make comparisons easier.
我们常用百分比来表示部分数据，以便进行比较。
Percentage = (Part / Whole) × 100%
百分比 = (部分 / 整体) × 100%
A ratio can be used to compare two quantities, such as the ratio of boys to girls in a study.
比率可用于比较两个量，例如研究中男孩与女孩的比例。
3. Independent and Dependent Variables | 自变量与因变量
In a psychological experiment, the independent variable (IV) is the factor that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates. The dependent variable (DV) is the factor that is measured to see if it is affected by the IV.
在心理学实验中，自变量（IV）是研究者有意改变或操纵的因素。因变量（DV）则是被测量的因素，以观察它是否受到自变量的影响。
The core experimental question always follows the pattern: “Does changing the IV cause a change in the DV?” All other variables must be controlled so they do not interfere.
核心实验问题总是遵循这个模式：“改变自变量是否会引起因变量的变化？”所有其他变量必须被控制，以免造成干扰。
For example, if you investigate whether background music affects concentration (measured by a test score), the IV is the presence or absence of music, and the DV is the test score.
例如，如果你研究背景音乐是否影响专注力（通过测试分数测量），自变量是音乐的有无，因变量则是测试分数。
A firm understanding of IV and DV is a fundamental ‘theorem’ of research design.
牢固理解自变量与因变量，是研究设计的一项基本“定理”。
4. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段理论
Jean Piaget theorised that children’s thinking develops through four universal stages in a fixed order. Each stage builds on the previous one.
让·皮亚杰提出，儿童思维按照固定顺序经历四个普遍的阶段，每个阶段都建立在前一阶段之上。
Sensorimotor stage (0–2 years): Infants explore through senses and actions; they develop object permanence – knowing objects exist even when unseen.
感知运动阶段（0–2岁）：婴儿通过感官和动作探索世界；形成客体永久性——知道物体即使看不见也仍然存在。
Preoperational stage (2–7 years): Children use symbols (words, images) but lack logical operations. Thinking is egocentric – they struggle to see others’ viewpoints.
前运算阶段（2–7岁）：儿童使用符号（语词、图像），但缺乏逻辑运算。思维以自我为中心——他们难以从他人角度看问题。
Concrete operational stage (7–11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events emerges. Children grasp conservation – understanding that quantity stays the same despite changes in appearance.
具体运算阶段（7–11岁）：关于具体事物的逻辑思维开始出现。儿童掌握守恒——理解即使外观改变，数量依然不变。
Formal operational stage (11+ years): Abstract and hypothetical reasoning becomes possible. Adolescents can think about possibilities and test hypotheses systematically.
形式运算阶段（11岁以上）：能够进行抽象和假设推理。青少年可以思考多种可能性并系统地检验假设。
Piaget’s stage model remains a cornerstone of developmental psychology.
皮亚杰的阶段模型始终是发展心理学的基石。
5. Classical Conditioning: Pavlov’s Discovery | 经典条件反射：巴甫洛夫的发现
Ivan Pavlov demonstrated that a neutral stimulus can come to trigger a response through association. The learning process follows a clear sequence, often summarised as a ‘formula’.
伊万·巴甫洛夫证明，一个中性刺激可以通过联想引发反应。这一学习过程遵循清晰的顺序，常被总结为一个“公式”。
Pre-conditioning: Unconditioned Stimulus (US) → Unconditioned Response (UR)
条件反射建立前：非条件刺激 (US) → 非条件反应 (UR)
During conditioning: Neutral Stimulus (NS) + US → UR
条件反射建立中：中性刺激 (NS) + US → UR
After conditioning: Conditioned Stimulus (CS) → Conditioned Response (CR)
条件反射建立后：条件刺激 (CS) → 条件反应 (CR)
In Pavlov’s famous experiment, food (US) naturally caused salivation (UR). A bell (NS) was rung just before food was given. After several pairings, the bell alone (now CS) made the dogs salivate (CR).
在巴甫洛夫著名的实验中，食物（US）自然地引起唾液分泌（UR）。在给予食物之前响起铃声（NS）。经过多次配对后，单独铃声（现为CS）就能使狗分泌唾液（CR）。
Key processes include acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, stimulus generalisation and discrimination.
关键过程包括习得、消退、自然恢复、刺激泛化和分化。
6. Operant Conditioning: Skinner’s Principles | 操作性条件反射：斯金纳原理
B. F. Skinner showed that voluntary behaviours are shaped by their consequences. This is based on Thorndike’s Law of Effect: behaviours followed by satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated.
B. F. 斯金纳表明，自愿行为由其后果塑造。这基于桑代克效果律：后果令人满意的行为更有可能被重复。
Reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behaviour. Positive reinforcement adds something pleasant (e.g., praise). Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant (e.g., stopping a nagging sound).
强化增加行为发生的可能性。正强化添加愉快之物（如表扬）。负强化移除不快之物（如停止烦人的噪音）。
Punishment decreases the likelihood of a behaviour. Positive punishment adds something unpleasant (e.g., extra homework). Negative punishment removes something pleasant (e.g., confiscating a phone).
惩罚减少行为发生的可能性。正惩罚添加不快之物（如额外的作业）。负惩罚移除愉快之物（如没收手机）。
The basic operant formula: Behaviour → Consequence (reinforcing or punishing) → Change in future behaviour probability.
操作性条件反射的基本公式：行为 → 后果（强化或惩罚性） → 未来行为概率的改变。
7. Multi-Store Model of Memory | 记忆多储存模型
The multi-store model (Atkinson and Shiffrin) describes memory as three separate stores through which information flows in a linear fashion.
多储存模型（阿特金森和谢弗林）将记忆描述为三个独立的储存库，信息以线性方式在其中流动。
Sensory memory: Holds information from the senses for a very brief time (iconic memory ~0.5 seconds, echoic memory ~2 seconds). Information is lost unless we pay attention.
感觉记忆：短暂保持来自感官的信息（图像记忆约0.5秒，声像记忆约2秒）。除非我们加以注意，否则信息会丢失。
Short-term memory (STM): Information we are aware of. It has a limited capacity of about 7±2 chunks and a duration of around 18–30 seconds without rehearsal.
短时记忆（STM）：我们意识到的信息。其容量有限，约7±2个组块，在没有复述的情况下持续时间约18–30秒。
Maintenance rehearsal (repeating information) can keep items in STM, and elaborative rehearsal (linking to existing knowledge) helps transfer them to long-term memory.
维持性复述（重复信息）能将信息保留在短时记忆中，而精细复述（与已有知识联系）有助于将其转入长时记忆。
Long-term memory (LTM): A store with potentially unlimited capacity and duration. Encoding is mainly semantic (by meaning).
长时记忆（LTM）：容量和持续时间可能无限的储存库。编码主要为语义编码（根据意义）。
This model is a foundational theorem of cognitive psychology.
该模型是认知心理学的一项基础定理。
8. Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve | 艾宾浩斯遗忘曲线
Hermann Ebbinghaus studied his own memory and discovered that forgetting happens rapidly right after learning, then the rate of loss slows over time. This pattern is called the forgetting curve.
赫尔曼·艾宾浩斯通过研究自己的记忆发现，遗忘在学习后立即迅速发生，随后遗忘速率随时间变慢。这一模式被称为遗忘曲线。
Approximate memory retention data from Ebbinghaus’s work: after 20 minutes, about 58% is retained; after 1 hour, ~44%; after 1 day, ~34%; after 6 days, ~25%.
艾宾浩斯研究得出的近似记忆保持数据：20分钟后大约保留58%；1小时后约44%；1天后约34%；6天后约25%。
The curve shows that meaningful material and spaced rehearsal are crucial for moving information into long-term memory and resisting forgetting.
Published by TutorHao | Year 7 Psychology Revision Series | aleveler.com更多咨询请联系16621398022（同微信）
屏轩国际教育cambridge primary/secondary checkpoint, cat4, ukiset,ukcat,igcse,alevel,PAT,STEP,MAT, ibdp,ap,ssat,sat,sat2课程辅导，国外大学本科硕士研究生博士课程论文辅导Cancel reply