📚 Year 7 WJEC Psychology: Quick-Reference Formula & Theorem Handbook | 7年级 WJEC 心理学：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your essential psychology pocket guide. This handbook collects the most important ‘formulas’, laws, and models you will meet in Year 7 WJEC Psychology. Think of each entry as a tool to unlock how memory, learning, attachment, and personality actually work. Once you know these core ideas, you can explain almost any topic you study in class.
欢迎使用你的心理学必备速查手册。这本手册汇集了你在 7 年级 WJEC 心理学课程中将遇到的最重要的“公式”、定律和模型。你可以把每一条当作一把钥匙，用来解开记忆、学习、依恋和人格如何运作的谜题。掌握这些核心观点后，你就能解释课堂上学习的几乎任何课题。
1. The Magical Number Seven | 神奇数字 7
George Miller (1956) discovered that the average person can hold about seven items in their short-term memory (STM) at any one time. The precise range is 7 ± 2, meaning most of us manage between five and nine chunks of information.
乔治·米勒（1956 年）发现，普通人在任何时刻的短时记忆中大约能容纳 7 个信息项目。准确的范围是 7 ± 2，也就是说我们大多数人能处理 5 到 9 个信息组块。
STM capacity = 7 ± 2 chunks
短时记忆容量 = 7 ± 2 个组块
Remember, a ‘chunk’ can be a single digit, a letter, or a meaningful group such as ‘BBC’ or ‘2024’. Chunking helps us beat the limit: turning a long string like 1-9-4-5-1-0-1-6 into 1945 and 1016 reduces eight items to two chunks.
请记住，一个“组块”可以是一个数字、一个字母，或者一个有意义的组合，比如“BBC”或“2024”。组块化能帮助我们突破限制：把 1-9-4-5-1-0-1-6 这样一个长串转变成 1945 和 1016，就能把 8 个项目减少到 2 个组块。
2. Duration of Sensory Memory | 感觉记忆的持续时间
Sensory memory holds a brief snapshot of everything your senses pick up. Sperling (1960) showed that your iconic (visual) memory lasts about 0.5 seconds, while echoic (auditory) memory can last up to 3–4 seconds. This split-second duration is long enough for your brain to decide what enters STM.
感觉记忆会短暂地保留你感官捕捉到的一切。斯珀林（1960 年）的实验表明，图像（视觉）记忆大约持续 0.5 秒，而声像（听觉）记忆则可长达 3 到 4 秒。这几分之一秒的时间足以让你的大脑决定哪些信息进入短时记忆。
| Memory store | Duration |
|---|---|
| Iconic (visual) | ~0.5 seconds |
| Echoic (auditory) | 3–4 seconds |
| 记忆储存 | 持续时间 |
|---|---|
| 图像（视觉） | 大约 0.5 秒 |
| 声像（听觉） | 3–4 秒 |
This makes sense in everyday life: you can ‘replay’ the last few words a teacher said even if you were not paying full attention, but a quickly flashed picture fades almost instantly.
在日常生活中这也很合理：即使你没有完全集中注意力，也能“回放”老师刚刚说过的最后几个词，但一张快速闪过的图片几乎瞬间就会消失。
3. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model Equation | 阿特金森-希夫林模型方程
The multi-store model (1968) describes memory as a flow of information through three stores. The formula-like sequence is the backbone of memory theory:
多储存模型（1968 年）将记忆描述为信息流经三个储存库的过程。这个类似公式的序列是记忆理论的支柱：
Sensory input → Sensory memory (attention) → Short-term memory (rehearsal) → Long-term memory
感觉输入 → 感觉记忆（注意） → 短时记忆（复述） → 长时记忆
If you pay attention to sensory information, it passes into STM. With enough rehearsal (repeating the information), it moves into LTM. Without rehearsal, the information decays or is displaced by new input. This explains why cramming without rehearsal rarely works long-term.
如果你对感觉信息加以注意，它就会进入短时记忆。通过充分的复述（重复信息），它就会转入长时记忆。如果没有复述，信息就会消退或被新信息取代。这也解释了为什么不经过复述的死记硬背很少能长期有效。
4. Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development | 皮亚杰认知发展阶段
Jean Piaget proposed that children’s thinking develops in four fixed stages. The progression is like a biological clock: you cannot skip a stage, and all children pass through them in the same order. The approximate age ranges and characteristics form a handy reference table.
让·皮亚杰提出，儿童的思维会经历四个固定阶段的发展。这个进程就像生物钟一样：你不能跳过任何一个阶段，所有儿童都按相同顺序经历这些阶段。大致的年龄范围和特征形成了一张方便的参考表。
| Stage | Age | Key feature |
|---|---|---|
| Sensorimotor | 0–2 years | Object permanence |
| Preoperational | 2–7 years | Egocentrism, animism |
| Concrete operational | 7–11 years | Conservation, classification |
| Formal operational | 11+ years | Abstract reasoning |
| 阶段 | 年龄 | 关键特征 |
|---|---|---|
| 感觉运动期 | 0–2 岁 | 客体永久性 |
| 前运算期 | 2–7 岁 | 自我中心、泛灵论 |
| 具体运算期 | 7–11 岁 | 守恒、分类 |
| 形式运算期 | 11 岁以上 | 抽象推理 |
For Year 7 learners, it is especially useful to see that you are moving from concrete to formal operational thought. You can now begin to imagine ‘what if’ scenarios and test hypotheses, which is why science and maths get more exciting.
对于 7 年级学生来说，能意识到自己正在从具体运算期向形式运算期过渡是特别有用的。你现在可以开始想象“如果……会怎样”的情境并检验假设，这也是科学和数学变得更加令人兴奋的原因。
5. Bandura’s Social Learning Theory Equation | 班杜拉社会学习理论公式
Albert Bandura showed that we learn not only through direct reinforcement but also by observing others. The social learning process can be written as a sequence of four necessary steps:
阿尔伯特·班杜拉指出，我们不仅通过直接强化来学习，还会通过观察他人来学习。社会学习的过程可以写成四个必要步骤的序列：
Observation → Imitation → Reinforcement → Motivation
观察 → 模仿 → 强化 → 动机
First you pay attention to a role model. Then you must be able to remember and copy their behaviour. The behaviour is more likely to be repeated if it is reinforced (rewarded). Finally, you must be motivated to perform it. In the famous Bobo doll experiment (1961), children who saw an adult praised for hitting the doll were far more likely to copy the aggression.
首先你要注意一个榜样，然后你必须能够记住并复制他们的行为。如果该行为得到强化（获得奖励），就更有可能被重复。最后，你必须有动机去执行它。在著名的波波娃娃实验（1961 年）中，看到成人因击打娃娃而受到表扬的儿童，模仿攻击行为的可能性要大得多。
6. Operant Conditioning Reinforcement Schedules | 操作性条件反射强化程式
B.F. Skinner’s work reveals that how often and when a reward is given dramatically alters behaviour. The patterns can be summarised in a reinforcement schedule table. Continuous reinforcement builds a behaviour quickly but it extinguishes fast once the reward stops; partial schedules produce slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.
B.F. 斯金纳的研究表明，奖励的频率和时机对行为有着巨大的影响。这些模式可以用强化程式表来概括。连续强化能快速建立行为，但一旦停止奖励，行为也会迅速消退；部分强化程式导致学习速度较慢，但对消退的抵抗力更强。
| Schedule | Definition | Real-life example |
|---|---|---|
| Continuous | Reward every correct response | Giving a sweet every time a dog sits on command |
| Fixed ratio | Reward after a set number of responses | Factory worker paid per 10 items made |
| Variable ratio | Reward after an unpredictable number of responses | Slot machines; gambling |
| Fixed interval | Reward after a fixed time | Weekly pocket money |
| Variable interval | Reward after an unpredictable time | Checking your phone for a message |
| 程式 | 定义 | 现实例子 |
|---|---|---|
| 连续强化 | 每次正确反应都给予奖励 | 每次狗按指令坐下都给它一颗糖 |
| 固定比率 | 完成固定次数反应后给予奖励 | 工厂工人每做 10 件产品得一次报酬 |
| 可变比率 | 在不可预测的反应次数后给予奖励 | 老虎机；赌博 |
| 固定时距 | 经过一段固定时间后给予奖励 | 每周零花钱 |
| 可变时距 | 经过一段不可预测的时间后给予奖励 | 查看手机是否有消息 |
Variable ratio schedules create the highest response rates and are hardest to extinguish, which is exactly why people keep pulling the lever on a fruit machine.
可变比率程式产生最高的反应率，也最难消退，这正好解释了为什么人们会不停地拉老虎机上的拉杆。
7. Yerkes-Dodson Law | 耶克斯-多德森定律
The Yerkes-Dodson law states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When arousal becomes too high, performance drops. The relationship is an inverted U-shaped curve.
耶克斯-多德森定律指出，表现会随生理或心理唤醒度的提高而提高，但仅在到达一个点之前。当唤醒度过高时，表现反而会下降。这种关系是一条倒 U 形曲线。
Performance = f(arousal), optimal at moderate arousal
表现 = f(唤醒度)，在中等唤醒度时达到最佳
Simple or well-practised tasks can tolerate higher arousal, while complex or new tasks require lower arousal for best performance. This is why athletes perform best when they feel ‘psyched up but not stressed’, and why too much exam anxiety can block your memory.
简单或熟练的任务可以容忍较高的唤醒度，而复杂或新任务则需要较低的唤醒度才能发挥出最佳表现。这就是运动员在感到“兴奋但不紧张”时表现最佳，以及为什么过度考试焦虑会堵塞你的记忆。
8. Depth of Processing Hypothesis | 加工深度假说
Craik and Lockhart (1972) rejected the idea of separate memory stores in favour of one continuous dimension: depth of processing. Information that is processed deeply (thinking about its meaning) is remembered far better than information processed shallowly (thinking about its appearance or sound).
克雷克和洛克哈特（1972 年）摒弃了独立的记忆储存库的概念，转而支持一个连续的维度：加工深度。经过深度加工（思考其含义）的信息，比经过浅层加工（思考其外观或声音）的信息更容易被记住。
Memory retention ∝ Depth of processing
记忆保持 ∝ 加工深度
- Shallow processing: Is the word in capital letters? Does it rhyme with ‘cat’?
- Deep processing: Does the word fit into this sentence? Is it a type of animal you could find in the UK?
- 浅层加工：这个词是否为大写字母？它与“猫”押韵吗？
- 深度加工：这个词能填入这个句子吗？它是你能在英国找到的一种动物吗？
When you revise, elaborative rehearsal that links new facts to examples you already know creates deep traces. Simply reading notes over and over (maintenance rehearsal) stays shallow and is quickly forgotten.
在你复习时，把新知识与你已知的例子联系起来的精细复述会留下深刻的痕迹。而仅仅反复阅读笔记（维持性复述）就停留在浅层，会很快被忘记。
9. Multi-Store Model Transfer Formula | 多储存模型迁移公式
Combining capacity, duration, and encoding reveals how information moves from one store to the next. This can be expressed as a simple ‘transfer equation’:
将容量、持续时间和编码方式结合起来，就能揭示信息是如何从一种储存转移到下一种储存的。这可以用一个简单的“迁移公式”来表达：
| Store | Capacity | Duration | Encoding |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sensory | Very large | 0.5–4 s | Modality-specific |
| STM | 7±2 chunks | 18–30 s | Mainly acoustic |
| LTM | Unlimited | Potentially lifetime | Mainly semantic |
| 储存类型 | 容量 | 持续时间 | 编码方式 |
|---|---|---|---|
| 感觉记忆 | 非常大 | 0.5–4 秒 | 感觉通道特异性 |
| 短时记忆 | 7±2 个组块 | 18–30 秒 | 主要为听觉编码 |
| 长时记忆 | 无限 | 可能终生 | 主要为语义编码 |
Transfer from STM to LTM therefore depends on rehearsal. Without rehearsal, items decay or are displaced by new ones. The typical STM duration of 18–30 seconds can be stretched by maintenance rehearsal, but durable learning needs elaborative rehearsal.
因此，从短时记忆向长时记忆的迁移依赖于复述。没有复述，信息就会消退或被新信息取代。短时记忆典型的 18 到 30 秒持续时间可以通过维持性复述来延长，但持久的记忆需要精细复述。
10. Attachment Styles Summary | 依恋类型总结
Mary Ainsworth’s Strange Situation procedure identified three main attachment types in children. The distribution in a typical UK sample can be treated as a probability formula for quick diagnosis:
玛丽·安斯沃思的陌生情境程序识别出儿童中的三种主要依恋类型。在一个典型的英国样本中，其分布概率可以看作一个快速诊断的公式：
| Attachment type | % in UK | Child’s behaviour |
|---|---|---|
| Secure (Type B) | ~66% | Distressed when caregiver leaves, easily comforted upon return |
| Insecure-avoidant (Type A) | ~22% | Shows little distress; ignores caregiver on return |
| Insecure-resistant (Type C) | ~12% | Extreme distress; resists comfort and may show anger |
| 依恋类型 | 英国占比 | 儿童行为 |
|---|---|---|
| 安全型（B 类） | 约 66% | 看护者离开时不安，回来时很容易被安抚 |
| 不安全-回避型（A 类） | 约 22% | 几乎不表现出痛苦；看护者回来时不予理会 |
| 不安全-反抗型（C 类） | 约 12% | 极度痛苦；抗拒安抚，可能会表现出愤怒 |
These patterns are formed by the sensitivity of a caregiver’s responses. Securely attached children tend to do better socially and academically, which is why early relationships matter so much.
这些模式是由看护者反应的敏感性形成的。安全依恋的儿童往往在社会能力和学业上表现得更好，这也就是为什么早期的亲密关系如此重要。
11. Freud’s Personality Structure | 弗洛伊德人格结构
Sigmund Freud described personality as a three-part structure that can be visualised as a balance scale or equation: the id, ego, and superego are in constant negotiation.
西格蒙德·弗洛伊德将人格描述为一个三部分的结构，可以看作一架天平或一个等式：本我、自我和超我时刻在相互协商。
Personality = id (pleasure principle) + ego (reality principle) + superego (morality principle)
人格 = 本我（快乐原则） + 自我（现实原则） + 超我（道德原则）
- Id: Unconscious, impulsive, wants immediate gratification — ‘I want it now!’
- Ego: Conscious, rational, mediates between id and superego — ‘Let’s find a sensible way.’
- Superego: Moral compass, internalised rules from parents and society — ‘That would be wrong.’
- 本我： 无意识的、冲动的，要求即时满足——“我现在就要！”
- 自我： 有意识的、理性的，在本我和超我之间进行调解——“我们来找一个合理的方式吧。”
- 超我： 道德指南针，来自父母和社会的内化规则——“那样做是不对的。”
Too much id leads to impulsivity; an over-powerful superego creates guilt and anxiety. A healthy personality is one where the ego stays strong enough to balance the two.
本我过强会导致冲动行事；超我过于强大则会产生内疚和焦虑。健康的人格是自我足够强大，能够平衡这两者。
12. Key Research Methods in Psychology | 心理学关键研究方法
All the ‘formulas’ in psychology are built on evidence gathered through different research methods. Knowing their strengths and limitations is a fundamental skill. The three main types can be remembered with a simple 3 × 3 checklist.
心理学中所有的“公式”都建立在通过不同研究方法收集到的证据之上。了解它们的优点和局限是一项基本技能。三种主要类型可以用一个简单的 3 × 3 清单来记忆。
| Method | Strength | Weakness |
|---|---|---|
| Experiment | Shows cause and effect | May be artificial, ethical limits |
| Observation | High ecological validity, natural behaviour | No control, observer bias |
| Questionnaire / interview | Large samples, quick data | Social desirability, lying |
| 方法 | 优点 | 缺点 |
|---|---|---|
| 实验法 | 显示因果关系 | 可能脱离实际，存在伦理限制 |
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