📚 Year 8 WJEC Business Studies: Formula & Theorem Quick Reference Handbook | 八年级WJEC商务：公式定理速查手册
Welcome to your handy reference for essential business formulas and economic principles. Mastering these tools will help you calculate profit, understand costs, and make smart business decisions. Keep this guide close to boost your confidence in every topic.
欢迎使用这本实用的商务公式与经济学原理速查手册。掌握这些工具将帮助你计算利润、理解成本并做出明智的商业决策。把这份指南放在手边，能让你在每个课题中都更有信心。
1. Total Revenue Formula | 总收入公式
Total Revenue (TR) is the money a business earns from selling its goods or services, before any costs are taken away. It shows how well sales are generating income.
总收入（TR）是一家企业从销售商品或服务中赚取的款项，尚未扣除任何成本。它体现了销售创造收入的情况。
To calculate TR, multiply the selling price per unit by the quantity sold. For example, if a bakery sells 200 cupcakes at £2 each, TR = £2 × 200 = £400.
要计算总收入，只需将每单位售价乘以销售数量。例如，如果一家面包店以2英镑的单价卖出200个纸杯蛋糕，总收入 = £2 × 200 = £400。
Total Revenue (TR) = Price (P) × Quantity Sold (Q)
2. Total Costs Formula | 总成本公式
Total Costs (TC) are all the expenses a business faces during production. These are split into fixed costs and variable costs, which behave differently as output changes.
总成本（TC）是企业在生产过程中面临的所有开支。这些开支分为固定成本和变动成本，它们会随着产量变化而表现出不同的行为。
Fixed costs remain the same regardless of output, such as rent and insurance. Variable costs change directly with production, like raw materials and piece-rate wages.
固定成本不随产量变化，如租金和保险。变动成本则直接随产量变化，例如原材料和计件工资。
Total Costs (TC) = Fixed Costs (FC) + Variable Costs (VC)
3. Profit Calculation | 利润计算
Profit is the reward a business earns for taking risks. It is what remains after all costs have been subtracted from total revenue. A positive profit means the business is financially healthy.
利润是企业承担风险后获得的回报，是从总收入中扣除所有成本后的剩余部分。正利润意味着企业财务状况良好。
To find profit, simply deduct total costs from total revenue. If a shop earns £5,000 in sales but spends £3,800 on costs, its profit is £1,200. A loss occurs if costs exceed revenue.
计算利润很简单，用总收入减去总成本即可。如果一家商店的销售收入为5,000英镑，但成本为3,800英镑，则利润为1,200英镑。若成本超过收入，就会出现亏损。
Profit = Total Revenue (TR) – Total Costs (TC)
4. Break-Even Point Formula | 盈亏平衡点公式
The break-even point (BEP) tells a business how many units it must sell to cover all its costs. At this point, total revenue equals total costs, and the business makes neither a profit nor a loss.
盈亏平衡点（BEP）告诉企业需要销售多少单位产品才能覆盖所有成本。此时总收入等于总成本，企业既不盈利也不亏损。
Break-even is crucial for planning and decision-making. The formula uses fixed costs, the selling price per unit, and the variable cost per unit. The difference between price and variable cost is called the contribution per unit.
盈亏平衡点对规划与决策至关重要。公式使用固定成本、单位售价和单位变动成本。售价与变动成本之间的差额称为单位贡献毛利。
Break-Even Point (units) = Fixed Costs ÷ (Selling Price per Unit – Variable Cost per Unit)
5. Contribution per Unit | 单位贡献毛利
Contribution per unit is the amount each sold item puts towards covering fixed costs and then generating profit. It is a vital measure for understanding product profitability.
单位贡献毛利是每一件售出产品为覆盖固定成本并创造利润所贡献的金额。它是理解产品盈利能力的关键指标。
Calculate contribution by subtracting the variable cost per unit from the selling price. If a phone case sells for £15 and costs £9 to make, the contribution is £6. This £6 first helps pay fixed costs; once they are covered, it becomes pure profit.
用单位售价减去单位变动成本即可算出贡献毛利。如果一款手机壳售价15英镑，生产成本为9英镑，则贡献毛利为6英镑。这6英镑首先用来支付固定成本；一旦覆盖完毕，就成了纯利润。
Contribution per Unit = Selling Price per Unit – Variable Cost per Unit
6. Gross Profit and Net Profit | 毛利与净利润
Gross profit is the profit a business makes after deducting only the direct costs of making its products, like raw materials. Net profit is what remains after all other expenses, such as rent and advertising, are taken away.
毛利是企业扣除产品直接生产成本（如原材料）后得到的利润。净利润则是扣除租金和广告费等所有其他费用后剩下的部分。
These two profit levels show different things: gross profit highlights production efficiency, while net profit reveals the overall health of the business. Both are found on an income statement.
这两个利润层次反映了不同的信息：毛利突出生产效率，净利润则揭示了企业的整体健康状况。两者都出现在利润表中。
Gross Profit = Revenue – Cost of Sales
Net Profit = Gross Profit – Other Operating Expenses
7. Profit Margins | 利润率
Profit margins express profit as a percentage of revenue, making it easy to compare performance across different years or with rival firms. The two common margins are gross profit margin and net profit margin.
利润率将利润表示为收入的百分比，便于在不同年份之间或与竞争对手进行比较。两种常见的利润率是毛利率和净利润率。
A higher margin means the business keeps more money from each pound of sales. To calculate, divide the profit figure by revenue and multiply by 100. Tracking margins helps managers control costs and set pricing strategies.
更高的利润率意味着企业能从每英镑销售额中留下更多资金。计算方法是用利润数字除以收入再乘以100。追踪利润率有助于管理者控制成本并制定定价策略。
Gross Profit Margin = (Gross Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
Net Profit Margin = (Net Profit ÷ Revenue) × 100
8. Cash Flow Net Cash Flow | 现金流净额
Cash flow refers to money moving in and out of a business. Net cash flow is the difference between total inflows (receipts) and total outflows (payments) over a period. It indicates whether the business has enough cash to pay its bills.
现金流是指进出企业的资金流动。净现金流是某个时期内总流入（收入）与总流出（支出）的差额。它能表明企业是否有足够现金支付账单。
A positive net cash flow means more money came in than went out, which strengthens the firm’s liquidity. A negative figure warns that the firm may struggle to cover immediate expenses. Cash flow forecasts help predict these movements.
正的净现金流意味着流入的资金多于流出，这将增强企业的流动性。负数则警示企业可能难以支付即期费用。现金流预测有助于提前预判此类变动。
Net Cash Flow = Total Cash Inflows – Total Cash Outflows
9. Current Ratio (Working Capital Ratio) | 流动比率
The current ratio is a liquidity ratio that measures a firm’s ability to pay short-term debts using its current assets. A ratio between 1.5 and 2 is often considered healthy for most businesses.
流动比率是一种流动性比率，衡量企业利用流动资产偿还短期债务的能力。对大多数企业来说，介于1.5至2之间的比率通常被视为健康。
Current assets include cash, inventory, and money owed by customers (trade receivables). Current liabilities are debts due within a year, such as overdrafts and trade payables. Divide current assets by current liabilities to get the ratio.
流动资产包括现金、存货和客户欠款（应收账款）。流动负债是一年内到期的债务，如透支和应付账款。用流动资产除以流动负债即可得出该比率。
Current Ratio = Current Assets ÷ Current Liabilities
10. The Law of Demand | 需求定律
The law of demand is a fundamental economic principle stating that, all else being equal, as the price of a product increases, the quantity demanded decreases. The opposite is also true.
需求定律是一条基本经济学原理，即其他条件不变时，随着产品价格上升，需求量会下降。反之亦然。
This inverse relationship happens because consumers look for cheaper alternatives or feel less able to afford a good when its price rises. Businesses use demand curves to estimate how many units they might sell at different price points.
这种反比关系源于消费者在价格上升时会寻找更廉价的替代品，或者感到购买力下降。企业借助需求曲线来估算在不同价位可能售出的数量。
Demand Theorem: Price ↑ → Quantity Demanded ↓ (ceteris paribus)
11. Opportunity Cost Principle | 机会成本原理
Opportunity cost is the value of the next best alternative that is given up when a choice is made. Because resources are scarce, every decision involves a trade-off.
机会成本是指做出某个选择时所放弃的次优替代选项的价值。由于资源是稀缺的，每一个决策都包含权衡。
For a business, if it decides to invest £10,000 in new machinery, the opportunity cost might be the marketing campaign or staff training it could have funded instead. Understanding this helps managers evaluate the true cost of their decisions.
对企业来说，如果决定投资10,000英镑购买新机器，那么机会成本可能就是原本可以用这笔钱做的营销活动或员工培训。理解这一点有助于管理者评估决策的真实代价。
Opportunity Cost = Value of the Next Best Alternative Forgone
12. Economies of Scale Concept | 规模经济概念
Economies of scale occur when a business lowers its average cost per unit by increasing production. This gives larger firms a competitive edge over smaller rivals.
当企业通过扩大产量来降低单位平均成本时，就实现了规模经济。这使大企业比小竞争对手更具竞争优势。
Reasons include buying raw materials in bulk for discounts, spreading fixed costs over more units, and using specialist machinery more efficiently. However, growing too fast can lead to diseconomies of scale if communication and coordination break down.
原因包括批量采购原材料以获得折扣、将固定成本分摊到更多单位上，以及更高效地使用专业机器。然而，增长过快可能导致规模不经济，比如沟通与协调出现问题。
Average Cost per Unit = Total Costs ÷ Quantity Produced (decreases with larger volume under economies of scale)
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