📚 Year 9 AQA Sociology: Key Terms Quick Revision Guide | Year 9 AQA 社会学：关键术语速记指南
Welcome to your quick-reference guide for essential sociological vocabulary. Mastering key terms is the first step to understanding how society works. This guide breaks down definitions and concepts you will encounter in Year 9 AQA Sociology, from culture and socialisation to inequality and research methods.
欢迎阅读社会学核心词汇速记指南。掌握关键术语是理解社会运作方式的第一步。本指南梳理了你将在 Year 9 AQA 社会学课程中遇到的定义与概念，涵盖文化、社会化、不平等和研究方法等内容。
1. Society and Culture | 社会与文化
Understanding the building blocks of sociology starts with “society” and “culture”. These are the lenses through which we examine how people live together.
理解社会学的基本构件要从“社会”与“文化”开始。这些概念是我们考察人们如何共同生活的透镜。
Society: a group of people who share a common geographical territory and culture, interacting through social relationships and institutions.
社会：共享共同地理区域和文化，通过社会关系和制度进行互动的一群人。
Culture: the whole way of life of a society, including language, beliefs, values, norms, and material objects such as art and buildings.
文化：一个社会的全部生活方式，包括语言、信仰、价值观、规范，以及艺术和建筑等物质产品。
Subculture: a group within a larger culture that has its own distinct norms, values and lifestyle, for example youth subcultures like goths or skaters.
亚文化：更大文化中的一个群体，拥有自己独特的规范、价值观和生活方式，例如哥特族或滑板族等青年亚文化。
Cultural diversity: the variety of different cultures and subcultures within a society or across the world, highlighting differences in traditions and practices.
文化多样性：一个社会内部或全球范围内不同文化与亚文化的多样性，突出传统和习俗的差异。
Norms: unwritten rules of behaviour that are considered acceptable in a group or society, e.g. queuing or saying “please”.
规范：在群体或社会中被认为可接受的不成文行为准则，例如排队或说“请”。
Values: deeply held beliefs about what is important, desirable and morally right, which guide norms and behaviour, e.g. loyalty, respect.
价值观：关于什么是重要、可取和道德正确的深层信念，指导着规范和行为，例如忠诚、尊重。
2. Socialisation | 社会化
Socialisation explains how we learn to become members of society. It is a lifelong process through which we absorb our culture.
社会化解释了我们如何学会成为社会成员。这是一个终生的过程，我们通过它来吸收文化。
Socialisation: the process by which individuals learn and internalise the norms, values and behaviours of their society.
社会化：个体学习并内化其社会规范、价值观和行为的过程。
Primary socialisation: the first stage of socialisation, typically within the family, where young children learn language, basic norms and emotional bonds.
初级社会化：社会化的第一阶段，通常发生在家庭内部，幼儿在此学习语言、基本规范与情感纽带。
Secondary socialisation: the later stage of socialisation that occurs beyond the family, through schools, peer groups, media and workplaces, teaching wider societal expectations.
次级社会化：社会化较晚的阶段，发生在家庭之外，通过学校、同伴群体、媒体和工作场所等，传授更广泛的社会期待。
Agents of socialisation: the individuals, groups and institutions that carry out socialisation, such as family, education, peer group and mass media.
社会化主体：执行社会化的个人、群体和制度，例如家庭、教育、同伴群体和大众传媒。
Nature vs nurture: the debate over whether human behaviour is determined by biological factors (nature) or by social environment and learning (nurture).
先天与后天：关于人类行为是由生物因素（先天）还是由社会环境与学习（后天）决定的争论。
Feral children: children who have grown up with little or no human contact, providing extreme evidence of the importance of nurture in socialisation.
野孩子：在很少或没有人类接触的环境中长大的儿童，为社会化的“后天”重要性提供了极端证据。
3. Norms, Values and Morals | 规范、价值观与道德
Norms and values are the glue of social life. Morals add a deeper layer of right and wrong that shapes our consciences.
规范和价值观是社会生活的粘合剂。道德则增添了更深层的是非观，塑造我们的良知。
Norms: shared rules of conduct that tell people how to act in specific situations; they can be formal (laws) or informal (table manners).
规范：告诉人们在特定情境下如何行动的共享行为规则；它们可以是正式的（法律）或非正式的（餐桌礼仪）。
Values: broad, abstract concepts of what is good, desirable and proper, such as freedom, privacy and equality.
价值观：关于什么是好、可取和恰当的广泛抽象概念，例如自由、隐私和平等。
Morals: principles of right and wrong behaviour, often linked to personal conscience, religion or ethical codes.
道德：有关对错行为的原则，常与个人良知、宗教或伦理规范相关。
Mores: norms that are seen as vital to a society’s moral fabric; violating them provokes strong disapproval, e.g. acts of dishonesty.
民德：被视为对社会道德结构至关重要的规范；违反它们会引发强烈的谴责，例如不诚实的行为。
Folkways: everyday norms based on custom and tradition, less strictly enforced than mores, such as greetings and dressing appropriately.
民风：基于习俗和传统的日常规范，其执行不如民德严格，例如问候方式和穿着得体。
Sanctions: rewards or punishments used to reinforce norms; positive sanctions (praise, prizes) encourage conformity, negative sanctions (fines, ridicule) discourage deviance.
制裁：用于强化规范的奖励或惩罚；正面制裁（表扬、奖品）鼓励遵从，负面制裁（罚款、嘲笑）抑制越轨。
4. Social Roles and Status | 社会角色与地位
Every individual occupies positions in society, each with expected behaviours. Understanding roles and status helps us see the structure of social life.
每个个体都在社会中占据一定位置，每个位置都有被期待的行为。理解角色和地位有助于我们看清社会生活的结构。
Social role: the set of behaviours, obligations and rights expected from a person who holds a particular social position, e.g. the role of a student or parent.
社会角色：对一个占据特定社会位置的人所期待的一系列行为、义务和权利，例如学生或父母的角色。
Status: the social position a person holds, which can carry prestige or respect.
地位：一个人拥有的社会位置，可能带有声望或尊重。
Ascribed status: a social position assigned at birth or involuntarily, such as age, sex, or race.
先赋地位：与生俱来或非自愿获得的社会位置，例如年龄、性别或种族。
Achieved status: a social position earned through personal effort, ability or choice, such as becoming a doctor or athlete.
自致地位：通过个人努力、能力或选择获得的社会位置，例如成为医生或运动员。
Role conflict: tension between competing role expectations from two or more statuses, e.g. balancing demands of being a parent and an employee.
角色冲突：来自两个或多个地位的角色期待之间的对立紧张，例如兼顾为人父母和雇员的角色要求。
Role model: a person whose behaviour, example, or success is emulated by others, especially by younger people.
角色模范：其行为、榜样或成功被他人（尤其是年轻人）效仿的人。
5. Social Institutions | 社会制度
Social institutions are the organised, established patterns that meet society’s basic needs. They shape every individual from birth onwards.
社会制度是满足社会基本需求的有组织、既定模式。它们从出生起就塑造着每一个人。
Social institution: a stable cluster of values, norms, roles and groups that addresses a fundamental social need, such as the family, education or religion.
社会制度：一套稳定的价值观、规范、角色和群体，用于解决某种基本社会需求，例如家庭、教育或宗教。
Family: a primary institution that cares for children, regulates sexual behaviour and provides emotional support; it is the main agent of primary socialisation.
家庭：一个照料儿童、规范两性行为并提供情感支持的首要制度；它是初级社会化的主要主体。
Education: a formal institution responsible for the transmission of knowledge, skills and cultural values, and a key agent of secondary socialisation.
教育：一个传递知识、技能和文化价值的正式制度，也是次级社会化的重要主体。
Media: mass communication channels (TV, internet, social media) that shape attitudes, spread norms and can create shared cultural experiences.
媒体：塑造态度、传播规范并能够创造共享文化体验的大众传播渠道（电视、互联网、社交媒体）。
Peer group: a social group whose members share similar interests, social position and age; provides powerful socialisation during adolescence.
同伴群体：一个成员共享相似兴趣、社会位置和年龄的社会群体；在青少年期提供强有力的社会化。
Religion: an institution involving beliefs and practices related to the sacred, often providing moral codes and a sense of community.
宗教：一个涉及与神圣事物相关的信仰与实践的制度，通常提供道德准则和社区归属感。
Workplace: an institution where individuals learn occupational roles, norms of professionalism and time discipline, contributing to adult socialisation.
工作场所：一个让个体学习职业角色、专业规范和守时纪律的制度，对成人社会化作出贡献。
6. Social Identity | 社会认同
Our sense of who we are is shaped by social interactions and group memberships. Sociologists study how identity is constructed.
我们的自我感由社会互动和群体归属塑造。社会学家研究认同是如何构建的。
Identity: the sense of self a person develops through socialisation and interactions; it answers the question “Who am I?”.
认同：一个人通过社会化和互动而形成的自我感；它回答了“我是谁”的问题。
Social identity: parts of an individual’s identity that come from belonging to particular groups, such as nationality, ethnicity, gender or social class.
社会认同：个体认同中源自于归属特定群体的部分，例如国籍、种族、性别或社会阶级。
Self-concept: the overall idea we have of ourselves, including our strengths, weaknesses and perceived personality traits, developed through social feedback.
自我概念：我们对自己的整体看法，包括优点、缺点和感知的性格特征，通过社会反馈发展而来。
Labelling: the process of attaching a definition or description to a person or group, which can influence their self-identity and behaviour, e.g. being called “clever” or “troublemaker”.
标签化：给某人或某群体贴上定义或描述的过程，这会影响他们的自我认同与行为，例如被称为“聪明”或“捣蛋鬼”。
Stereotype: a simplified, fixed and often exaggerated image of a category of people, e.g. “all teenagers are lazy”.
刻板印象：对某一类人的简化、固定且常常夸大的形象，例如“所有青少年都懒惰”。
Prejudice: a negative pre-judgement or attitude towards a group and its members, not based on evidence.
偏见：对一个群体及其成员的消极预判或态度，并非基于证据。
Discrimination: the action or behaviour that treats people unfairly because of their group membership, e.g. refusing someone a job due to their ethnicity.
歧视：因某人所属群体而对其采取不公平对待的行为，例如因其种族而拒绝录用某人。
7. Social Stratification and Inequality | 社会分层与不平等
Societies are divided into layers based on wealth, power and status. These divisions shape life chances and experiences.
社会根据财富、权力和地位被分为不同层级。这些分层塑造了生活机会与经历。
Social stratification: the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in a society based on factors such as class, gender and ethnicity.
社会分层：社会中基于阶级、性别和种族等因素对个人和群体进行的等级排列。
Class: a large-scale grouping of people who share similar economic resources, often defined by occupation, income and wealth.
阶级：共享相似经济资源的一大群人，通常由职业、收入和财富界定。
Social mobility: the movement of individuals or groups up or down the social hierarchy, e.g. from working class to middle class.
社会流动：个人或群体在社会等级中向上或向下的移动，例如从工人阶级进入中产阶级。
Life chances: the opportunities an individual has to achieve positive outcomes, such as good health, education and a long life, influenced by social class and background.
生活机会：个体获得良好健康、教育和长寿等积极成果的机会，受社会阶级和背景影响。
Gender inequality: the unequal treatment and opportunities experienced by individuals based on their gender, evident in pay gaps, career expectations and household roles.
性别不平等：个人基于性别所经历的不平等待遇和机会，体现在薪酬差距、职业期待和家庭角色中。
Ethnicity: a shared cultural heritage, language, history, and often religion, which can be a basis for identity and stratification.
民族/种族身份：共享的文化传统、语言、历史，通常也包括宗教，可作为认同和分层的基础。
Intersectionality: the idea that different forms of inequality (e.g. class, gender, ethnicity) are interconnected and cannot be examined separately.
交叉性：认为不同形式的不平等（如阶级、性别、种族）相互关联、不可孤立考察的观点。
8. Social Control and Deviance | 社会控制与越轨
All societies need mechanisms to maintain order. Social control promotes conformity, while deviance challenges accepted norms.
所有社会都需要机制来维持秩序。社会控制促进遵从，而越轨则挑战被接受的规范。
Social control: the methods and strategies that regulate behaviour in society, ensuring conformity to norms and values.
社会控制：规范社会行为、确保遵从规范与价值观的方法和策略。
Formal social control: control exercised by official institutions through written rules, laws and sanctions, e.g. police, courts, school rules.
正式社会控制：由官方机构通过成文规则、法律和制裁实施的控制，例如警察、法院、校规。
Informal social control: control exercised by individuals and groups through unwritten norms and social pressure, e.g. peer pressure, ridicule, praise.
非正式社会控制：由个人和群体通过不成文规范和社会压力实施的控制，例如同伴压力、嘲笑、表扬。
Deviance: behaviour that violates social norms, ranging from minor acts (strange dress) to serious crimes; it is not always criminal.
越轨：违反社会规范的行为，从轻微举动（奇装异服）到严重犯罪不等；越轨行为未必是刑事犯罪。
Crime: an act that breaks the formal written laws of a society and is punishable by the state.
犯罪：违反社会正式成文法律并受到国家惩罚的行为。
Anomie: a state of normlessness where social norms break down, often during rapid social change; Durkheim used this concept to explain higher suicide rates.
失范：社会规范崩溃的无规范状态，常发生在快速社会变迁时期；涂尔干用此概念解释较高的自杀率。
9. Research Methods Key Terms | 研究方法关键术语
Sociologists use specific research terms when designing and evaluating studies. These terms are essential for writing about sociological research.
社会学家在设计和评估研究时使用专门的研究术语。这些术语对于撰写有关社会学研究的内容至关重要。
Primary data: information collected firsthand by the researcher for their specific research purpose, e.g. answers from interviews they conducted.
一手数据：由研究者为特定研究目的亲自收集的信息，例如他们进行的访谈回答。
Secondary data: information that already exists, collected by someone else for a different purpose, e.g. official statistics, historical documents.
二手数据：已经存在的、由他人为其他目的收集的信息，例如官方统计数据、历史文献。
Qualitative data: non-numerical information that provides depth and detail, such as words, observations and meanings.
定性数据：提供深度和细节的非数值信息，例如文字、观察和意义。
Quantitative data: numerical information that can be measured and expressed in numbers, charts and statistics.
定量数据：可以测量并用数字、图表和统计数据表达的数值信息。
Survey: a research method using questionnaires or structured interviews to gather data from a large number of people.
调查：使用问卷或结构化访谈从大量人群中收集数据的研究方法。
Interview: a method involving direct questioning of respondents, which can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
访谈：直接向受访者提问的方法，可为结构化、半结构化或非结构化。
Observation: a method where the researcher watches and records behaviour in a natural or controlled setting; can be participant or non-participant.
观察：研究者在自然或受控环境中观察并记录行为的方法；可分为参与式和非参与式。
Validity: the extent to which a research method measures what it intends to measure; does it give a true picture?
效度：研究方法在多大程度上测量了它打算测量的东西；它是否呈现了真实情况？
Reliability: the consistency of a research method; if repeated, would it produce similar results?
信度：研究方法的一致性；如果重复进行，是否会得出相似的结果？
Sample: a smaller, manageable group selected from the research population to represent it in a study.
样本：从研究总体中选出的较小且可控的群体，用以在研究中代表该总体。
Ethical issues: moral concerns in research, such as informed consent, confidentiality, protection from harm and the right to withdraw.
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