Core Knowledge Points for Year 11 Cambridge Economics | Year 11 Cambridge 经济：核心知识点梳理

📚 Core Knowledge Points for Year 11 Cambridge Economics | Year 11 Cambridge 经济：核心知识点梳理

Economics is the study of how society manages its scarce resources. This guide consolidates the essential topics for Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE Economics, covering microeconomic foundations and macroeconomic principles. Understanding these core concepts will help you analyse real-world issues, from market prices to government policy.

经济学研究社会如何管理稀缺资源。这份指南汇集了 Year 11 Cambridge IGCSE 经济学的必知要点，涵盖微观经济学基础和宏观经济学原理。掌握这些核心概念将帮助你分析现实世界问题，从市场价格到政府政策。

1. The Basic Economic Problem and Opportunity Cost | 基本经济问题与机会成本

The fundamental economic problem is scarcity: unlimited wants but limited resources. Because resources (land, labour, capital, enterprise) are finite, every society must make choices about what to produce, how to produce, and for whom to produce.

基本经济问题是稀缺性：无限的欲望对有限的资源。由于资源（土地、劳动、资本、企业家才能）是有限的，每个社会都必须就生产什么、如何生产以及为谁生产做出选择。

Opportunity cost is the next best alternative forgone when an economic decision is made. For example, if a government spends on defence, the opportunity cost might be less funding for healthcare. The concept helps individuals, firms, and governments weigh trade-offs.

机会成本是在做出经济决策时所放弃的次优选择。例如，如果政府将资金用于国防，机会成本可能是医疗资金的减少。这一概念有助于个人、企业和政府权衡利弊。

2. Production Possibility Curve (PPC) | 生产可能性曲线

A production possibility curve shows the maximum possible output combinations of two goods or services an economy can produce when all resources are fully and efficiently employed. Points inside the curve represent inefficient use of resources; points outside are unattainable.

生产可能性曲线展示了一个经济体在全部资源得到充分有效利用时，所能生产的两种商品或服务的最大产量组合。曲线内的点代表资源未有效利用；曲线外的点则无法达到。

Moving along the PPC illustrates opportunity cost – producing more of one good requires sacrificing some of the other. An outward shift of the curve indicates economic growth, caused by factors such as an increase in resources or improvements in technology.

沿着 PPC 移动说明了机会成本——多生产一种商品就需要牺牲一些另一种商品。曲线向外移动表示经济增长，其原因包括资源增加或技术进步。

3. Demand, Supply and Market Equilibrium | 需求、供给与市场均衡

The law of demand states that, ceteris paribus, as the price of a good falls, quantity demanded rises. Demand can shift due to changes in income, tastes, prices of substitutes or complements, and population size. A rightward shift means more is demanded at each price.

需求定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，商品价格下降则需求量上升。需求可能因收入、偏好、替代品或互补品价格以及人口规模的变化而移动。需求曲线右移表示在每个价格水平上需求量增加。

The law of supply states that, ceteris paribus, as price rises, quantity supplied rises. Supply shifts result from changes in production costs, technology, indirect taxes or subsidies, and the number of firms in the market.

供给定律指出，在其他条件不变的情况下，价格上升则供给量上升。供给移动源于生产成本、技术、间接税或补贴以及市场中企业数量的变化。

Market equilibrium occurs where quantity demanded equals quantity supplied, determining the equilibrium price. A shortage (excess demand) pushes price up; a surplus (excess supply) pushes price down until equilibrium is restored.

市场均衡出现在需求量等于供给量之处，由此确定均衡价格。短缺（超额需求）会推高价格；过剩（超额供给）会压低价格，直至恢复均衡。

4. Price Elasticity of Demand and Supply | 需求价格弹性与供给价格弹性

Price elasticity of demand (PED) measures the responsiveness of quantity demanded to a change in price:

PED = %ΔQd ÷ %ΔP

If |PED| > 1, demand is elastic; if |PED| < 1, demand is inelastic. Necessities and goods with few substitutes tend to have inelastic demand, while luxuries are elastic. PED affects total revenue: raising price increases revenue if demand is inelastic, but decreases revenue if demand is elastic.

需求价格弹性衡量需求量对价格变化的反应程度。如果 |PED| > 1，需求富有弹性；如果 |PED| < 1，需求缺乏弹性。必需品和替代品少的商品往往缺乏弹性，奢侈品则富有弹性。PED 影响总收入：若需求缺乏弹性，提价会增加收入；若需求富有弹性，提价会减少收入。

Price elasticity of supply (PES) measures responsiveness of quantity supplied to price changes. Supply tends to be more elastic when firms have spare capacity, can store inventory easily, and in the long run. Inelastic supply often occurs in agriculture or industries with long production times.

供给价格弹性衡量供给量对价格变化的反应程度。当企业有闲置产能、能够轻松储存库存且从长期看时，供给往往较有弹性。农业或生产周期长的行业供给通常缺乏弹性。

Income elasticity of demand (YED) is also key: normal goods have positive YED (demand rises as income rises), while inferior goods have negative YED.

需求收入弹性也很关键：正常商品具有正的收入弹性（收入增加需求上升），而低档商品具有负的收入弹性。

5. Market Failure and Government Intervention | 市场失灵与政府干预

Market failure occurs when the free market fails to allocate resources efficiently. Key causes include negative externalities (e.g., pollution), positive externalities (e.g., education), public goods, and information asymmetry.

市场失灵是指自由市场无法有效配置资源。主要原因包括负外部性（如污染）、正外部性（如教育）、公共商品和信息不对称。

Negative externalities mean social cost exceeds private cost, leading to overproduction. Governments can impose indirect taxes (pigovian tax) to internalise the externality, or use regulations and tradable permits. Positive externalities, where social benefit exceeds private benefit, may justify subsidies to boost consumption.

负外部性意味着社会成本高于私人成本，导致过度生产。政府可以征收间接税（庇古税）将外部性内部化，或使用法规和可交易许可证。正外部性指社会收益大于私人收益，可能需要补贴来刺激消费。

Public goods are non-excludable and non-rivalrous (e.g., street lighting). Free riders make private provision unlikely, so governments usually provide them through tax revenue. Information asymmetry can lead to adverse selection and moral hazard, requiring consumer protection laws.

公共商品具有非排他性和非竞争性（如路灯）。搭便车问题使得私人难以提供，因此政府通常通过税收提供。信息不对称可能导致逆向选择和道德风险，需要消费者保护法。

6. Macroeconomic Aims and Indicators | 宏观经济目标与指标

Governments typically pursue four main objectives: sustained economic growth, low unemployment, stable prices (low inflation), and a satisfactory balance of payments. Gross domestic product (GDP) measures the total value of goods and services produced in a country over a period.

政府通常追求四个主要目标：持续经济增长、低失业、物价稳定（低通胀）以及令人满意的国际收支。国内生产总值衡量一国在一个时期内生产的商品和服务的总价值。

Inflation is a sustained increase in the general price level, often measured by the consumer price index (CPI). Moderate inflation may coexist with growth, but high or hyperinflation erodes purchasing power and savings. Unemployment rate shows the percentage of the labour force that is actively seeking work but unable to find it.

通货膨胀是总体价格水平的持续上升，通常用居民消费价格指数衡量。温和通胀可能与增长并存，但高通胀或恶性通胀会侵蚀购买力和储蓄。失业率表明劳动力中积极寻找工作但未能找到的比例。

Economic growth is measured as the percentage increase in real GDP. However, GDP has limitations: it does not capture income distribution, non-market activities, or environmental degradation.

经济增长以实际 GDP 增加的百分比来衡量。但 GDP 有其局限性：它无法反映收入分配、非市场活动或环境退化。

7. Fiscal and Monetary Policy | 财政与货币政策

Fiscal policy involves government spending and taxation. Expansionary fiscal policy (higher spending and/or lower taxes) aims to boost aggregate demand and reduce unemployment. Contractionary fiscal policy (lower spending and/or higher taxes) is used to cool an overheating economy and control inflation.

财政政策涉及政府支出和税收。扩张性财政政策（增加支出和/或减税）旨在刺激总需求、降低失业。紧缩性财政政策（减少支出和/或增税）用于给过热经济降温并控制通胀。

Monetary policy is managed by a central bank, which adjusts interest rates and the money supply. Lower interest rates encourage borrowing and spending, stimulating the economy. Higher interest rates reduce inflationary pressure by discouraging borrowing. Quantitative easing is an unconventional tool used when interest rates are near zero.

货币政策由中央银行管理，调整利率和货币供应。较低的利率鼓励借贷和支出，刺激经济。较高的利率通过抑制借贷来减轻通胀压力。当利率接近零时，量化宽松是一种非常规工具。

8. International Trade and Protectionism | 国际贸易与保护主义

The theory of comparative advantage states that countries benefit from specialising in producing goods where they have a lower opportunity cost, and then trading. Free trade increases consumer choice, promotes efficiency, and stimulates economic growth.

比较优势理论指出，各国通过专门生产其机会成本较低的商品并进行贸易，可以获益。自由贸易增加消费者选择，促进效率并刺激经济增长。

Protectionism involves measures to shield domestic industries from foreign competition. Tariffs are taxes on imports, raising their price and reducing demand. Quotas limit the physical quantity of imports. Other barriers include subsidies to domestic producers and technical regulations.

保护主义涉及保护国内产业免受外国竞争的措施。关税是对进口商品征税，提高其价格并减少需求。配额限制进口商品的实际数量。其他壁垒包括对国内生产者的补贴和技术法规。

While protectionism may protect jobs and infant industries, it often leads to higher prices for consumers and retaliation from trading partners, reducing overall welfare.

虽然保护主义可能保护就业和幼稚产业，但它往往导致消费者支付更高价格，并引发贸易伙伴报复，降低整体福利。

9. Exchange Rates and the Balance of Payments | 汇率与国际收支

An exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. Under a floating exchange rate system, the value is determined by market demand and supply. A currency appreciates when demand increases, perhaps due to higher exports or interest rates. Depreciation occurs when supply rises relative to demand.

汇率是一种货币以另一种货币表示的价格。在浮动汇率制度下，汇率由市场供需决定。当需求增加时货币升值，这可能是由于出口增加或利率上升。当供给相对需求增加时，货币贬值。

A depreciation makes exports cheaper and imports more expensive, which can improve the current account balance over time. An appreciation has the opposite effect. Governments may intervene in foreign exchange markets to stabilise their currency, maintaining what is known as a managed float.

贬值使出口更便宜、进口更贵，这可以随时间改善经常账户余额。升值则有相反效果。政府可能干预外汇市场以稳定其货币，实行有管理的浮动汇率。

The balance of payments records all financial transactions between residents of a country and the rest of the world. The current account includes trade in goods and services, income flows, and transfers. A persistent deficit may indicate structural competitiveness problems.

国际收支记录了一国居民与世界其他地区之间的所有金融交易。经常账户包括商品和服务贸易、收入流动和转移支付。持续的赤字可能表明结构性竞争力问题。

10. Economic Development and Living Standards | 经济发展与生活水平

Economic development goes beyond GDP growth; it involves improvements in living standards, reduced poverty, better health and education. The Human Development Index (HDI) combines life expectancy, mean years of schooling, and gross national income per capita to measure development.

经济发展不仅仅意味着 GDP 增长；它涉及生活水平的提高、贫困减少、健康和教育改善。人类发展指数结合预期寿命、平均受教育年限和人均国民总收入来衡量发展水平。

Poverty can be absolute (lack of basic necessities) or relative (falling below the median income in a society). The poverty cycle explains how low income leads to low savings, low investment in human and physical capital, and thus low productivity, perpetuating poverty. Breaking the cycle often requires targeted government intervention.

贫困可以是绝对贫困（缺乏基本必需品）或相对贫困（低于社会收入中位数）。贫困循环解释了低收入如何导致低储蓄、低人力资本和物质资本投资，从而导致低生产率，使贫困持续。打破循环往往需要有针对性的政府干预。

Population growth affects development: a high dependency ratio can strain resources, but an educated workforce can boost productivity. Sustainable development aims to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs, demanding careful management of natural resources and pollution.

人口增长影响发展：高抚养比会消耗资源，但受过教育的劳动力可以提高生产率。可持续发展旨在满足当代人需求，又不损害后代满足其需求的能力，这要求对自然资源和污染进行谨慎管理。

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Published by TutorHao | Economics Revision Series | aleveler.com

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